Evaluation of demographics and social life events of Asian (Elephas maximus) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in north American zoos
Open accessAbstract
This study quantified social life events hypothesized to affect the welfare of zoo African and Asian elephants, focusing on animals that were part of a large multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional elephant welfare study in North America. Age was calculated based on recorded birth dates and an age-based account of life event data for each elephant was compiled. These event histories included facility transfers, births and deaths of offspring, and births and deaths of non-offspring herd mates. Each event was evaluated as a total number of events per elephant, lifetime rate of event exposure, and age at first event exposure. These were then compared across three categories: species (African vs. Asian); sex (male vs. female); and origin (imported vs. captive-born). Mean age distributions differed (p<0.05) between the categories: African elephants were 6 years younger than Asian elephants, males were 12 years younger than females, and captive-born elephants were 20 years younger than imported elephants. Overall, the number of transfers ranged from 0 to 10, with a 33% higher age-adjusted transfer rate for imported African than imported Asian elephants, and 37% lower rate for imported females than males (p<0.05). Other differences (p<0.05) included a 96% higher rate of offspring births for captive-born females than those imported from range countries, a 159% higher rate of birthing event exposures for captive-born males than for their imported counterparts, and Asian elephant females being 4 years younger than African females when they produced their first calf. In summarizing demographic and social life events of elephants in North American zoos, we found both qualitative and quantitative differences in the early lives of imported versus captive-born elephants that could have long-term welfare implications.
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As many as 80% of the elephants in North American zoos in 2012 had experienced at least one inter-zoo transfer.
“As many as 80% of the elephants in North American zoos in 2012 had experienced at least one inter-zoo transfer”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Prado-Oviedo et al., 2016
The Results (Transfers) report that 84% (211/250) of the study elephants experienced a transfer event, and that 94% of imported elephants had a subsequent transfer after importation. But the study counted importation itself as a transfer, and Methods (Subjects) limits the sample to 250 elephants in AZA-accredited zoos—83% of that population in 2012—not all elephants in North American zoos. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the U.S. most captive elephants have experienced at least one inter-zoo transfer, which is associated with stereotypic behaviors.
“For example, in the U.S. most captive elephants have experienced at least one inter-zoo transfer (111), which is associated with stereotypic behaviors (35).”
From Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia (2024) · cites this paper as [111]
The Results (Transfers) report that 84% of the 250 elephants studied experienced at least one transfer, and the Discussion describes these as inter-zoo transfers. The Methods (Subjects) limit the sample to AZA-accredited North American zoos, so the finding does not establish the rate for all captive elephants in the U.S. The stereotypic-behavior clause has a different citation in the citing sentence and is not attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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“For example, in the U.S. most captive elephants have experienced at least one inter-zoo transfer (111), which is associated with stereotypic behaviors (35).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
- Authors
- Prado-Oviedo, N. A., Bonaparte-Saller, M. K., Malloy, E. J., Meehan, C. L., Mench, J. A., Carlstead, K., & Brown, J. L.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- American University (US)
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (US)
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2016-07-14
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- e0154750
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4945030
- OpenAlex
- W2466637481
- Cited by
- 61
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 10
- FWCI
- 14.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ (vor)
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- American University Research Archive
- Funders
- Institute of Museum and Library Services (LG-25-10-0033-10)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Keywords
- Asian elephant, Loxodonta africana, zoo animal welfare, sex differences, age at first reproduction
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Animals, Animal Welfare, Animals, Zoo, Elephants, Female, Male, North America, Reproduction, Sex Factors, Social Environment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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