A review of current indicators of welfare in captive elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus)
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Abstract Concerns over elephant welfare in UK zoos have implications for their future in captivity. To monitor improvements made to elephant welfare in UK zoos, non-invasive, valid and reliable indicators of welfare are needed. Using a rapid review strategy and critical appraisal tool, we aimed to appraise evidence from peer-reviewed literature on potential welfare indicators for captive elephants. Scopus, Web of Knowledge and Ovid were searched in January 2014 using terms relevant to captive elephants and welfare assessment. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied and remaining articles were critically appraised against a specially designed welfare indicator appraisal tool. Thirty-seven unique indicators of welfare were extracted from 30 peer-reviewed papers which met the inclusion criteria. Behavioural measures of welfare (n = 21) were more common than either physical (n = 11) or physiological (n = 5) measures. Stereotypies were the most frequently used behavioural measure, glucocorticoids were the most frequently used physiological measure and body condition scores were the most frequently used physical measure. There was most support for the following indicators of improved welfare state: reduced stereotypies, reduced glucocorticoids and improved body condition scores. Additional measures which require further validation but had strong associations with the most supported measures, and thus have potential use in welfare assessment, were: increased lying rest and positive social interactions. Further validation of the described measures is needed, but this information forms a crucial part of the knowledge required to efficiently monitor and improve the welfare of elephants in captivity.
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Tools are increasingly using behavioral indicators associated with comfort, play, affiliation, foraging, and sociality to evaluate mental and overall welfare states, in addition to commonly used and validated negative welfare indicators like stereotypies, poor health and reproduction, and high mortality and morbidity.
“Tools are increasingly using behavioral indicators associated with comfort, play, affiliation, foraging, and sociality to evaluate mental and overall welfare states, in addition to commonly used and validated negative welfare indicators like stereotypies, poor health and reproduction, and high mortality and morbidity (23, 44, 101, 102).”
From Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia (2024) · cites this paper as [101]
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPreviously established behavioral measures for captive elephants and welfare factors associated with tourist camps can be integrated and adapted for further testing.
“Previously established behavioral measures for captive elephants (23, 101, 102) and welfare factors associated with tourist camps can be integrated and adapted for further testing.”
From Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia (2024) · cites this paper as [101]
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- Authors
- Williams, E., Chadwick, C., Yon, L., & Asher, L.
- Affiliations
- Nottingham Trent University (GB)
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- Newcastle University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Williams, E
- Venue
- Animal Welfare
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 235-249
- ISSN
- 0962-7286 (ISSN-L)
- 2054-1538
- OpenAlex
- W2885377365
- Cited by
- 59
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 11.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Animal Welfare (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK Government
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Equine › Veterinary Equine Medical Research
- Keywords
- captive elephants, elephant welfare, welfare indicators, zoo animals, stereotypy, glucocorticoids, body condition score, social interaction, welfare analysis, Loxodonta africana, Asian elephant
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