Imaging Response Inhibition in a Stop-Signal Task: Neural Correlates Independent of Signal Monitoring and Post-Response Processing

“These results suggest that the function of the IFC may extend beyond signal monitoring and mediate other aspects of attention function such as detection of behaviorally relevant, salient stimuli (Corbetta and Shulman, 2002; Yamasaki et al., 2002).”

“Activation in the anterior cingulate did not correlate with SSRT, EM effect, or frustrating rating, suggesting that this brain region probably plays a more complicated role that would require additional studies to understand (Bush et al., 2000; Rushworth et al., 2004).”

“With the staircase procedure, a “critical” SSD could be computed that represented the time delay required for the subject to succeed in withholding a response in the stop trials half of the time (Levitt, 1970).”

“05, corrected for false discovery rate (FDR) (Genovese et al., 2002) and an extent threshold of 10 voxels, successful inhibition was associated with greater bihemispheric activation of multiple cortical areas (Fig.”

“One would thus expect the anterior cingulate cortex to participate in a wide variety of cognitive and affective tasks in which inhibitory control assumes an integral position (Schall et al., 2002; Phillips et al., 2003; Dalley et al., 2004; Isomura and Takada, 2004; Nieuwenhuis et al., 2004; Ridderinkhof et al., 2004;…”

“One would thus expect the anterior cingulate cortex to participate in a wide variety of cognitive and affective tasks in which inhibitory control assumes an integral position (Schall et al., 2002; Phillips et al., 2003; Dalley et al., 2004; Isomura and Takada, 2004; Nieuwenhuis et al., 2004; Ridderinkhof et al., 2004;…”

“…such activity in the lateral habenula (McClure et al. 2003; O’Doherty, Dayan, et al. 2003; Seymour et al. 2004; Abler et al. 2006; Dreher et al. 2006; Li et al. 2006; Pessiglione et al. 2006; Behrens et al. 2008; D’Ardenne et al. 2008; Hare et al. 2008; Rutledge et al. 2010; Sescousse et al. 2010).”

“…et al. 2008; Hughes et al. 2012), conduct disorder (Oosterlaan et al. 1998; Rubia et al. 2009b), Tourette syndrome (Goudriaan et al. 2005; Ray Li et al. 2006), substance use disorders (Fillmore and Rush 2002; Fillmore et al. 2006; Garavan et al. 2008; Chambers et al. 2009; Liao et al. 2014),…”

“There is now a growing amount of evidence from neuroimaging studies (e.g., Aron et al. 2007; Chevrier et al. 2007; Li et al. 2006) that response stopping is associated with activation in prefrontal areas, such as the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and the…”

“To investigate the neural processes of cognitive control in relation to obesity, we used the SST in conjunction with functional magnetic resonance images to compare obese (BMI >30) and lean (BMI 22) females.”

“Significant activation during inhibition was seen in the right IFC, STN, pre-SMA, and GP, consistent with previous reports (Aron and Poldrack, 2006; Aron et al., 2007; Garavan et al., 1999; Li et al., 2006; Li et al., 2008; Rubia et al., 2001; Zheng et al., 2008).”

“Cognitive control is widely investigated with the stop signal task (SST; Li et al., 2006, 2008a,b; Logan et al., 1984).”

“One study showed that participants with more efficient response inhibition had greater pre-SMA activation [11], suggesting that perhaps the pre-SMA is critically needed during successful inhibition.”

“Although several neuroimaging studies on response inhibition have reported bilateral IFC activation (Bunge et al., 2002; Konishi et al., 1999; Li et al., 2006; Menon et al., 2001), the role of the left IFC has been less rigorously examined.”

“This region plays an important role in inhibitory control (57), and its dysfunction may be the”

“Results Behavior The participants accurately responded to go signals with 50% correct responses to stop signals (Table 2), which is comparable to previous reports (Aron and Poldrack, 2006; Li et al., 2006) and had no significant difference between rTMS conditions (p 0.”

“Other research questions this model and claims a critical role in response inhibition for the pre-SMA, whereas the IFG is assumed to subserve task-set updating or signal monitoring (Li et al., 2006; Mostofsky and Simmonds, 2008; Simmonds et al., 2008).”

“We selected the SST because performance on the task has been shown to correlate reliably with prefrontal cortical activation (Aron and Poldrack, 2006; Chikazoe et al, 2009; Duann et al, 2009; Li et al, 2006).”

“Concomitant with the improvement in inhibitory control, we observed a positive correlation with inhibition-related activation in the MFC, an area shown to be associated with motor inhibitory control in our previous studies of healthy individuals (38, 39, 41), as well as studies of other psychiatric populations (e.”

“There have been several studies on the planning of actions in the context of an already present motor plan, and these studies have used countermanding, go/no-go, and stop tasks (Garavan et al. 1999; Curtis et al. 2005; Li et al. 2006).”

“…responses when a stop signal was detected, (2) failure to activate bilateral middle and inferior frontal cortices was associated with a more global lack of vigilance, poor attentional monitoring, and subsequently failing to detect the signal as a stop signal and making a response (Li et al., 2006).”

“, aptitude, emotion, performance monitoring) (10, 20).”

“Further, to test the consistency between the results of the present study and those of the previous studies that used SSRT, a small volume correction (SVC) was applied using the coordinates reported in the previous study (Li et al., 2006) with a threshold of p 0.”

“Converging evidence from fMRI, lesion, and TMS studies also implicates medial prefrontal regions in response inhibition (Garavan et al., 1999; Li et al., 2006; Chevrier et al., 2007), particularly the presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA) (Aron and Poldrack, 2006; Floden and Stuss, 2006; Chen et al.”

“…task is associated with increased activation of frontal areas such as the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA), IFC and the anterior cingulate as well as the striatum and the STN (Rubia et al., 2003; Aron and Poldrack, 2006; Li et al., 2006, 2008; Aron et al., 2007; Zandbelt and Vink, 2010).”

“Our previous work suggested that higher task-evoked BOLD signals of the pre-SMA is associated with a greater capacity in inhibitory control (Li et al. 2006; Chao et al. 2009; Duann et al. 2009; Zhang and Li 2012b), and that such capacity declined significantly with age (Hu et al. 2012).”

“Li et al. / Neuroscience 155 (2008) 1142–1151 1143”

“For example, Li et al. (2006a) investigated impulse inhibition using a stop ⁎ Corresponding author at: Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, 205 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States.”

“Although past research has emphasized the role of the right inferior frontal gyrus in response inhibition (31), a number of studies have since demonstrated bilateral activation of the inferior frontal gyrus to response inhibition cues (32, 33).”

“…time task is associated with activation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) together with frontal areas such as the presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA), inferior frontal cortex (IFC) and the anterior cingulate (Aron et al. 2007; Aron and Poldrack 2006; Rubia et al. 2003; Li et al. 2006, 2008).”

“Brain signals (e.g., BOLD signal, ECoG, andEEG) acquired fromessential loci/electrodes during the stop signal task has also introduced some promising physiological measures that are related to behavioral performance (e.g., Li et al., 2006; Lo et al., 2013; Swann et al., 2009).”

“…greater activation in the right PFC during stop success than stop error trials, GORT, go trial reaction time; SSRT, stop signal reaction time; GS%, percentage of go success trials; SS%, percentage of stop success trials. r 2789 r suggesting its importance in attentional control [Li et al., 2006b].”

“To illustrate, we will compare two basic cognitive tasks aimed at assessing inhibitory control, the Go/Nogo (GNG; Menon et al., 2001) and the Stop Signal tasks (SST; Li et al., 2006).”

“Finally, our data have methodological implications for studies with the stop-signal paradigm and specifically the comparison of failed and successful inhibitions because they show that the performance in stop trials partially depends on the go process and not only on the stop process (Li et al., 2006).”

“As such, the increase in activity is likely to reflect additional processing required for proactive selective inhibition, which might involve, for example, attentional processes or the maintenance of inhibitory set, processes that can only be uncovered by targeted experimental designs that are not suitable to test our…”

“Instead, many have shown that the ventral-posterior IFG is not sensitive to the successfulness of stopping behavior [1,12,41], though some found that the ventralposterior IFG is more involved in successful than unsuccessful inhibition [17].”

“Furthermore, by comparing individuals with short and long SSRT who otherwise do not differ in stop signal performance, one can potentially isolate the neural correlates of inhibitory control (Li, Huang, et al. 2006).”

“…cortex and the basal ganglia have been implicated in playing a key role in behavioral control (Floden and Stuss, 2006; Aron et al., 2007b; Picton et al., 2007) and specifically during the stop signal paradigm (Curtis et al., 2005; Aron and Poldrack, 2006; Li et al., 2006; Aron et al., 2007a).”

“…and pre-SMA (Chen et al., 2009; Chevrier et al., 2007; Dodds et al., 2011; Fassbender et al., 2009, 2004; Garavan et al., 2006, 2008, 1999; Hampshire et al., 2010; Hester and Garavan, 2004; Kaufman et al., 2003; Konishi et al., 1999; Leung and Cai, 2007; Li et al., 2006a; Xue et al., 2008).”

“This network includes the presupplementary motor area (preSMA), right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), subthalamic nucleus, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and posterior parietal cortex (PPC) [Aron and Poldrack, 2006; Li et al., 2006; Zandbelt et al., 2013].”

“Low probability events with high surprise values, such as in the No-Go and Stop conditions of the Go/No-Go and stop signal tasks used to study inhibition control (e.g., Li et al., 2006), also result in increased uncer- tainty.”

“The SST was described in details in our earlier studies (Li et al., 2006, 2007a).”

“[26] indexed the efficiency of inhibitory control using the SSRT from a stop-signal task and found that greater activation of the pre-SMAwas associated with shorter SSRTs (which indicated more efficient inhibitory control).”

“Separately, ACC function has been linked to inhibitory control abilities (Cieslik et al., 2015; Li et al., 2006).”

“A circuit involving right inferior frontal cortex, anterior pre-SMA and subcortical structures including the caudate nucleus has been identified in supporting reactive response inhibition (Cai et al., 2017; Duann et al., 2009; Li et al., 2006).”

“…on response inhibition failed to observe a right iFg involvement (Drewe et al., 1975; Garavan et al., 2003; Godefroy and Rousseaux, 1996; Langenecker and Nielson, 2003; Li et al., 2006; Mostofsky et al., 2003, Picton et al., 2007; Ramautar et al., 2006; Wager et al., 2005; Watanabe et al., 2002).”

“For example in healthy adults, better inhibition with shorter stop-signal reaction times is associated with greater activation of premotor and superior medial frontal cortex (Li et al., 2006) and increased grey matter in right inferior frontal regions (Menzies et al., 2007).”

“, 2008), research using functional (Li et al., 2008; Rubia et al., 2001) and diffusion imaging (Casey et al.”

“For instance, studies using the N-back task (which requires both maintenance and updating of WM contents) have reported a similar LPC modulation by increasing N-back load (Gevins et al., 1997; Li et al., 2006; Rämä et al., 2000).”

“S3), largely replicating brain activation patterns associated with response inhibition in previous imaging studies (Liddle et al. 2001; Rubia et al. 2003; Aron & Poldrack, 2006; Li et al. 2006, 2008b; Zandbelt & Vink, 2010; Cai & Leung, 2011).”

“Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies consistently reveal frontocortical recruitment by behavior control tasks (Horn et al., 2003; Li et al., 2006a, b; Ridderinkhof et al., 2004), such as risk-taking (Rogers et al., 2004).”

“However, its involvement in successful response inhibition has been linked to other functions including attentional monitoring and the detection and processing of salient cues [Chao et al., 2009; Dodds et al., 2011; Duann et al., 2009; Hampshire et al., 2010; Hester et al., 2004; Li et al., 2006; Sharp et al., 2010].”

“As a control, the brain activity and its correlation with SSRT were calculated by applying common group-level parcels to all the subjects.”

“We also examined other cortical regions because numerous neuroimaging studies of response inhibition have reported activations in regions other than the right IFG, including the left IFG, inferior parietal lobe (IPL), middle temporal gyrus (MTG), middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and frontal motor areas (Aron et al., 2006;Li…”

“Converging evidence from studies with more spatially precise methods such as fMRI (Curtis et al., 2005; Li et al., 2006; Rubia et al., 2001; Swann et al., 2012a) and intracranial recordings (Swann et al., 2009, 2013) 233J.R. Wessel, A.R. Aron / NeuroImage 103 (2014) 225–234 point towards critical…”

“More generally, it can be noted that in the various studies that have investigated such brain-behavior correlations, the areas in which brain activity has been reported to correlate significantly with the SSRT have varied greatly, with limited overlap across the studies [28–37].”

“When inhibiting a response during the SST, brain activity is characterised by SN activation and concurrent Default Mode Network (DMN) deactivation (Sharp et al., 2010; Li et al., 2006; Hampshire and Sharp, 2015; Touroutoglou et al., 2012).”

“, 2018), although stronger inhibition-related neural activation predicts better inhibitory performance in healthy samples (Li et al., 2006), suggesting a potential”

“It is also noteworthy that the medial frontal cortical areas that are activated in human imaging studies using a stop signal task typically encompass both pre-SMA and SMA (Aron and Poldrack 2006; Li et al. 2006; Whelan et al. 2012; Zhang and Li 2012).”