Response inhibition in the stop-signal paradigm
Open accessAbstract
Response inhibition is a hallmark of executive control. The concept refers to the suppression of no-longer required or inappropriate actions, which supports flexible and goal-directed behavior in ever-changing environments. The stop-signal paradigm is most suitable for the study of response inhibition in a laboratory setting. The paradigm has become increasingly popular in cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience and psychopathology. We review recent findings in the stop-signal literature with the specific aim of demonstrating how each of these different fields contributes to better understanding of the processes involved in inhibiting a response and monitoring stopping performance, and more generally, discovering how behavior is controlled.
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- Premisecitation
Several studies indicate that people proactively alter response strategies when they anticipate stop signals, sacrificing go-task speed for stop-task success.
“Several studies suggest that subjects change response strategies proactively when they expect stop signals to occur, trading speed in the go task for success in the stop task [2, 7].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [2] Verbruggen, F. and Logan, G.D. Proactive adjustments of response strategies in the stop-signal paradigm. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. (in press)
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- cites [7] Stuphorn, 2006, Executive control of countermanding saccades by the supplementary eye field, Nat. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation
Many studies indicate that people also alter response strategies reactively after stop-signal trials.
“Many studies suggest that subjects also change response strategies reactively after stop-signal trials [8–11].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [8] Verbruggen, 2008, Short-term aftereffects of response inhibition: repetition priming or between-trial control adjustments?, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
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- cites [9] Schachar, 2004, Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. source
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- cites [10] Verbruggen, 2008, Long-term aftereffects of response inhibition: memory retrieval, task goals, and cognitive control, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
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- cites [11] Emeric, 2007, Influence of history on saccade countermanding performance in humans and macaque monkeys, Vision Res. source
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- Premisecitation
The rapid stopping mechanism works together with slower control processes that monitor and adjust performance.
“This process interacts with slower control mechanisms that monitor and adjust performance [2].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] Verbruggen, F. and Logan, G.D. Proactive adjustments of response strategies in the stop-signal paradigm. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. (in press)
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- Premisecitation
Some studies show that go RT increases after unsuccessful inhibition, similar to post-error slowing in choice reaction tasks.
“Some show that go RT increases after unsuccessful inhibition, reminiscent of the post-error slowing observed in choice reaction tasks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [8] Verbruggen, 2008, Short-term aftereffects of response inhibition: repetition priming or between-trial control adjustments?, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
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- cites [9] Schachar, 2004, Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. source
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- cites [10] Verbruggen, 2008, Long-term aftereffects of response inhibition: memory retrieval, task goals, and cognitive control, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
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- cites [11] Emeric, 2007, Influence of history on saccade countermanding performance in humans and macaque monkeys, Vision Res. source
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- Premisecitation
Stop-signal task performance can be described as a race between a go process started by the go stimulus and a stop process started by the stop signal.
“Performance in the stop-signal paradigm is modeled as a race between a go process, which is triggered by the presentation of the go stimulus, and a stop process, which is triggered by the presentation of the stop signal.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- Premisecitation
Stopping a motor response depends on a rapid control mechanism that blocks execution of the motor response.
“Stopping a response requires a fast control mechanism that prevents the execution of the motor response [1].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Logan, 1994, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a user's guide to the stop signal paradigm
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- Interpretationreasoning
These TMS findings support the theoretical distinction between stop and go processes in formal race models.
“These findings support the theoretical distinction between stop and go processes in formal race models.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Combined behavioral data (post-error slowing) and neural data (ERN and medial/middle frontal activation) suggest that monitoring and adjusting in the stop-signal paradigm may resemble monitoring and adjusting in paradigms without motor inhibition.
“Combined, behavioral data (post-error slowing) and neural data (ERN and activation of medial and middle frontal regions) suggest that monitoring and adjusting performance in the stop-signal paradigm may be similar to monitoring and adjusting performance in paradigms that do not involve inhibition of motor responses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The effects of STN stimulation on go RT and SSRT may be functionally independent.
“However, the effects of STN stimulation on go RT and SSRT may be functionally independent [29].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [29] van den Wildenberg, 2006, Stimulation of the subthalamic region facilitates the selection and inhibition of motor responses in Parkinson's disease, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation
Lesions to right SMA and pre-SMA impaired stopping without much effect on going.
“Similarly, lesions to right SMA and pre-SMA impaired stopping without influencing going very much [24].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [24] Floden, 2006, Inhibitory control is slowed in patients with right superior medial frontal damage, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation
Unsuccessful inhibition is linked to greater activation in medial frontal regions, including ACC and pre-SMA, and in middle frontal regions.
“Unsuccessful inhibition is associated with greater activation of medial frontal regions, including anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and pre-SMA, and middle frontal regions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The poor temporal resolution of fMRI makes it hard to determine the specific roles of right IFG and pre-SMA.
“However, the poor temporal resolution of fMRI makes it difficult to determine the specific role of right IFG and pre-SMA (cf. Box 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
fMRI studies found inhibition-related activation in basal ganglia, including STN and striatum.
“fMRI studies showed inhibition-related activation in basal ganglia, including the subthalamic nucleus [STN; 17] and striatum [18, 25].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [STN; 17]
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- cites [18] Chevrier, 2007, Dissociation of response inhibition and performance monitoring in the stop signal task using event-related fMRI, Hum. Brain Mapp. source
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- cites [25] Vink, 2005, Function of striatum beyond inhibition and execution of motor responses, Hum. Brain Mapp. source
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- Premisecitation
Event-related fMRI studies found greater activation mainly in parietal and frontal regions when inhibition was unsuccessful.
“Event-related fMRI studies showed that (mainly) parietal and frontal brain regions are more activated when inhibition is unsuccessful [15, 16, 18, 19].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [15] Rubia, 2003, Right inferior prefrontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection, Neuroimage source
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- cites [16] Li, 2006, Imaging response inhibition in a stop-signal task: neural correlates independent of signal monitoring and post-response processing, J. Neurosci. source
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- cites [18] Chevrier, 2007, Dissociation of response inhibition and performance monitoring in the stop signal task using event-related fMRI, Hum. Brain Mapp. source
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- cites [19] Rubia, 2007, Linear age-correlated functional development of right inferior fronto-striato-cerebellar networks during response inhibition and anterior Cingulate during error-related processes, Hum. Brain Mapp. source
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- Premisecitation
In most stop-signal situations, this suppression is very general and may affect all response tendencies, including muscle activity irrelevant to the task.
“In most stop-signal situations, this suppression is very general and may affect all response tendencies including activation in muscles that are irrelevant to the task [32–34].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [32] Coxon, 2006, Intracortical inhibition during volitional inhibition of prepared action, J. Neurophysiol. source
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- cites [33] Coxon, 2007, Selective inhibition of movement, J. Neurophysiol. source
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- cites [34] Aron, A.R. and Verbruggen, F. Stop the presses: dissociating a selective from a global mechanism for stopping. Psychol. Sci. (in press)
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- Interpretationreasoning
The neural mechanisms for monitoring can be distinguished from those directly involved in stopping.
“Moreover, the neural mechanisms involved in monitoring can be distinguished from the neural mechanisms involved directly in stopping (cf. Box 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Going is linked to activity in a cortico-basal-ganglia-thalamocortical circuit.
“Going is associated with activation of a cortico-basal-ganglia-thalamocortical circuit [13].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] Alexander, 1990, Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits - parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, prefrontal and limbic functions, Prog. Brain Res. source
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- Premisecitation
Recent studies using various methods indicate that stopping is linked to activity in a fronto-basal-ganglia circuit that includes IFG, middle frontal gyrus, medial frontal gyrus, and basal ganglia.
“Recent studies using a variety of methods suggest that stopping is associated with activation of a fronto-basal-ganglia circuit that includes inferior frontal gyrus (IFG; ventrolateral prefrontal cortex), middle frontal gyrus (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), medial frontal gyrus (MFG), and basal ganglia [14–18].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [14] Aron, 2007, Triangulating a cognitive control network using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI, J. Neurosci. source
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- cites [15] Rubia, 2003, Right inferior prefrontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection, Neuroimage source
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- cites [16] Li, 2006, Imaging response inhibition in a stop-signal task: neural correlates independent of signal monitoring and post-response processing, J. Neurosci. source
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- cites [17] Aron, 2006, Cortical and subcortical contributions to stop signal response inhibition: role of the subthalamic nucleus, J. Neurosci. source
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- cites [18] Chevrier, 2007, Dissociation of response inhibition and performance monitoring in the stop signal task using event-related fMRI, Hum. Brain Mapp. source
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- Premisecitation
The point at which the stop process finishes can be estimated from the observed go-RT distribution on no-signal trials and the observed p(respond|signal) for a given SSD.
“The point at which the stop process finishes can be estimated from the observed go-RT distribution on no-signal trials and the observed p(respond|signal) for a given SSD (see Figure IIa).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
- Interpretationnone given
Complete independence between go and stop processes is unlikely.
“However, complete independence between the go and stop process is unlikely.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
This suggests certain neurons in these regions are part of a circuit that directly controls inhibition of eye movements.
“This suggests that certain neurons in these regions are part of a circuit that directly controls the inhibition of eye movements [55, 56].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [55] Hanes, 1998, Role of frontal eye fields in countermanding saccades: visual, movement, and fixation activity, J. Neurophysiol. source
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- cites [56] Pare, 2003, Controlled movement processing: superior colliculus activity associated with countermanded saccades, J. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation
Logan and Cowan developed an independent race model that describes the probability of responding on a stop-signal trial, the latency of go RTs that escape inhibition, and SSRT.
“Logan and Cowan [3] developed an independent race model (Figure IIa) that described the probability of responding on a stop-signal trial, p(respond|signal), the latency of go RTs that escape inhibition, and SSRT.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- Premisecitation
Several studies show that activity of movement- and fixation-related neurons in frontal eye fields and superior colliculus was modulated before SSRT on successful stop trials.
“Several studies have shown that activity of movement- and fixation-related neurons in frontal eye fields in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [55] and superior colliculus in midbrain [56], was modulated before SSRT on successful stop trials (Figure Ia).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [55] Hanes, 1998, Role of frontal eye fields in countermanding saccades: visual, movement, and fixation activity, J. Neurophysiol. source
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- cites [56] Pare, 2003, Controlled movement processing: superior colliculus activity associated with countermanded saccades, J. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation
For every SSD, increasing go RT decreases p(respond|signal) because the probability that the stop process finishes before the go process increases.
“Second, for every SSD, increasing go RT decreases p(respond|signal) because the probability that the stop process finishes before the go process increases (Figure IIc).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
- Premisecitation
The inhibitory deficit in ADHD is linked to functional and structural differences in the fronto-basal-ganglia inhibitory network.
“The inhibitory deficit ADHD is linked to functional and structural differences in the fronto-basal-ganglia inhibitory network [for reviews, see 42, 43].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [for reviews, see 42, 43]
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- Premisecitation
SSRT can be estimated by subtracting SSD from the finishing time.
“SSRT can be estimated by subtracting SSD from the finishing time [for reviews of estimation methods of SSRT, see 1, 63].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [1] Logan, 1994, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a user's guide to the stop signal paradigm
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- cites [63] Band, 2003, Horse-race model simulations of the stop-signal procedure, Acta Psychol. (Amst.) source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
- Premisecitation
Activity of neurons in SEF and ACC did not modulate until after SSRT.
“By contrast, activity of neurons in supplementary eye fields (SEF), which are an ocularmotor extension of SMA, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in medial frontal cortex did not modulate until after SSRT (Figure Ib).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
According to the independent race model, p(respond|signal) depends mainly on SSD, go RT, and SSRT.
“According to the model, p(respond|signal) depends primarily on three factors: SSD, go RT and SSRT.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
- Interpretationreasoning
Findings from different fields have stimulated each other and led to integrative, converging conclusions about cognitive control processes in stopping and monitoring.
“Through this paradigm, findings from different fields of research have stimulated each other, leading to integrative, converging conclusions about cognitive control processes involved in stopping and performance monitoring.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The independent race model provides methods for estimating SSRT.
“Importantly, the independent race model provides methods for estimating SSRT.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
- Premisecitation
Children with ADHD slow their go RTs less after unsuccessful stopping than control subjects.
“Children with ADHD slow their go RTs less after unsuccessful stopping than control subjects [9].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Schachar, 2004, Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Combined behavioral and neural data suggest an error-monitoring deficit in ADHD that can be dissociated from the response-inhibition deficit.
“Combined, behavioral and neural data suggest an error-monitoring deficit in ADHD that can be dissociated from the response-inhibition deficit.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The inhibitory deficit in OCD has been linked to reduced grey matter in orbitofrontal and right inferior frontal regions.
“The inhibitory deficit in OCD has been linked to reduced grey matter in the orbitofrontal and right inferior frontal regions [49].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [49] Menzies, 2007, Neurocognitive endophenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder, Brain source
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- Premisecitation
For every SSD, increasing SSRT increases p(respond|signal) because the probability that the stop process finishes after the go process increases.
“Third, for every SSD, increasing SSRT increases p(respond|signal) because the probability that the stop process finishes after the go process increases (Figure IId).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
- Premisecitation
Boucher et al. proposed an interactive race model in which go and stop processes are independent for much of their latencies and interact strongly near the end.
“Boucher et al. [64] proposed an interactive race model, in which the go and stop process are independent for much of their latencies and interact strongly near the end (Figure III).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [64] Boucher, 2007, Inhibitory control in mind and brain: an interactive race model of countermanding saccades, Psychol. Rev. source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: In the interactive race model, the go and stop processes are independent for much of their latencies and interact strongly near the end.
- Interpretationreasoning
Inhibitory processes and monitoring have been dissociated behaviorally and neurally.
“Inhibitory processes and monitoring have been dissociated behaviorally and neurally.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Unsuccessful inhibition is associated with negatively polarized local-field potentials recorded in ACC of monkeys stopping eye movements.
“Consistent with this idea, unsuccessful inhibition is associated with negatively polarized local-field potentials recorded in ACC of monkeys stopping eye movements [59].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [59] Emeric, 2008, Performance monitoring local field potentials in the medial frontal cortex of primates: anterior cingulate cortex, J. Neurophysiol. source
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- Premisecitation
Neuroimaging studies show activation in right IFG and pre-SMA in different inhibition tasks.
“Neuroimaging studies show activation in right IFG and pre-SMA in different inhibition tasks [68, 69].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [68] Aron, 2004, Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex, Trends Cogn. Sci. source
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- cites [69] Derrfuss, 2004, Cognitive control in the posterior frontolateral cortex: evidence from common activations in task coordination, interference control, and working memory, Neuroimage source
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- Interpretationreasoning
This need not imply that the same inhibitory circuit is involved.
“However, this need not imply that the same inhibitory circuit is involved.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Behavioral results suggest a functional relation between stop-signal inhibition and interference control in the Stroop and flanker tasks.
“Behavioral results suggest a functional relation between stop-signal inhibition and interference control in the Stroop task and the flanker task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [65] Verbruggen, 2004, The interaction between stop signal inhibition and distractor interference in the flanker and Stroop task, Acta Psychol. (Amst.) source
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- cites [66] Verbruggen, 2005, Effects of stimulus-stimulus compatibility and stimulus-response compatibility on response inhibition, Acta Psychol. (Amst.) source
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- Premisecitation
One fMRI study compared inhibition of eye and hand movements directly and found common activation in right IFG and medial frontal regions.
“One fMRI study compared inhibition of eye and hand movements directly, and found common activation in right IFG and medial frontal regions (among other regions) [71].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [71] Leung, 2007, Common and differential ventrolateral prefrontal activity during inhibition of hand and eye movements, J. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation
Individual-difference studies show correlations between stop-signal inhibition and interference control.
“Individual-difference studies show correlations between stop-signal inhibition and interference control [67].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [67] Friedman, 2004, The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: a latent-variable analysis, J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. source
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- May combine two claims. 52
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationOther studies show that go RT increases after successful stopping, which is not consistent with error correction but suggests a shift in priority toward the stop task after a stop signal.
“Others show that go RT increases after successful stopping, which is inconsistent with error-correction but suggests a shift in priority to the stop task after a stop signal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [8] Verbruggen, 2008, Short-term aftereffects of response inhibition: repetition priming or between-trial control adjustments?, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
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- cites [9] Schachar, 2004, Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. source
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- cites [10] Verbruggen, 2008, Long-term aftereffects of response inhibition: memory retrieval, task goals, and cognitive control, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
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- cites [11] Emeric, 2007, Influence of history on saccade countermanding performance in humans and macaque monkeys, Vision Res. source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSSRT is a covert latency that has to be estimated using a stochastic model such as the independent race model.
“The latency of the stop process (stop-signal reaction time; SSRT) is covert and must be estimated from a stochastic model, such as the independent race model [3; Box 2].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDevelopmental studies found that SSRT is higher in younger children and older adults than in young adults, and that go RT and stopping change independently across age.
“Developmental scientists found that SSRT is elevated in younger children and older adults compared to young adults, and a comparison of SSRT and go reaction time (RT) showed that going and stopping develop and decline independently [4–6].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [4] van den Wildenberg, 2004, Developmental trends in simple and selective inhibition of compatible and incompatible responses, J. Exp. Child Psychol. source
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- cites [5] Williams, 1999, Development of inhibitory control across the life span, Dev. Psychol. source
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- cites [6] Rush, 2006, Accounting for cognitive aging: context processing, inhibition or processing speed?, Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. source
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PremisecitationIn the race model, the response is inhibited if the stop process finishes before the go process, and emitted if the go process finishes first.
“When the stop process finishes before the go process, the response is inhibited; when the go processes finishes before the stop process, the response is emitted.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationRecent neuroimaging research suggests right IFG is involved in stopping, and possibly in other kinds of inhibition.
“Recent neuroimaging research has suggested that right IFG is involved in stopping [e.g., 14, 15, 18], and possibly, other kinds of inhibition (cf. Box 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [e.g., 14, 15, 18]
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PremisecitationSuccessful stopping is also linked to pre-SMA activation, but unlike right IFG, pre-SMA activation magnitude did not correlate with SSRT.
“Successful stopping is also associated with pre-SMA activation, but unlike right IFG, the magnitude of activation in pre-SMA did not correlate with SSRT [14].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] Aron, 2007, Triangulating a cognitive control network using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI, J. Neurosci. source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBasal ganglia lesions impaired stop performance in humans and rodents, while deep-brain stimulation of STN in Parkinson patients improved inhibitory control.
“Lesions to the basal ganglia impaired stop performance for both humans and rodents [26–28], whereas deep-brain stimulation of STN in Parkinson patients enhanced inhibitory control [29].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [26] Gauggel, 2004, Inhibition of ongoing responses in patients with Parkinson's disease, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry source
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- cites [27] Rieger, 2003, Inhibition of ongoing responses following frontal, nonfrontal and basal ganglia lesions, Neuropsychology source
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- cites [28] Eagle, 2003, Inhibitory control in rats performing a stop-signal reaction-time task: effects of lesions of the medial striatum and d-amphetamine, Behav. Neurosci. source
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- cites [29] van den Wildenberg, 2006, Stimulation of the subthalamic region facilitates the selection and inhibition of motor responses in Parkinson's disease, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningResults across studies are sometimes inconsistent, possibly because they used different methods to isolate inhibition-related regions.
“Results are sometimes inconsistent between studies, possibly because they used different methods for isolating inhibition-related regions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLesions to STN and STN stimulation in Parkinson patients affect both go RT and SSRT.
“Lesions to STN and stimulation of STN in Parkinson patients influence both go RT and SSRT [29, 30].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [29] van den Wildenberg, 2006, Stimulation of the subthalamic region facilitates the selection and inhibition of motor responses in Parkinson's disease, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- cites [30] Eagle, 2008, Stop-signal reaction-time task performance: role of prefrontal cortex and subthalamic nucleus, Cereb. Cortex source
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PremisecitationAutism and schizophrenia are associated with general cognitive impairments as well as inhibitory deficits.
“Some disorders, such as autism [37] and schizophrenia [38], are associated with general cognitive impairments as well as inhibitory deficits.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [37] Geurts, 2004, How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism?, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry source
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- cites [38] Enticott, 2008, Response inhibition and impulsivity in schizophrenia, Psychiatry Res. source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationRecent studies show that stimulus repetition matters: after successful stopping, responding is typically slower when the stop-trial stimulus repeats, as if the stimulus became linked with stopping and retrieval of that link impaired go performance.
“Recent studies show that stimulus repetition may be a critical variable: responding after successful stopping is typical slower when the stimulus from the stop trial is repeated, as if the stimulus was associated with stopping, and retrieval of that association impaired go performance [8].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Verbruggen, 2008, Short-term aftereffects of response inhibition: repetition priming or between-trial control adjustments?, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationUnsuccessful inhibition is associated with an ERN in the EEG, similar to the ERN seen after choice errors.
“Unsuccessful inhibition is associated with an error-related negativity (ERN) in the electroencephalogram [35], which is reminiscent of the ERN that is typically observed after choice errors in reaction tasks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [35] Kok, 2004, ERP components associated with successful and unsuccessful stopping in a stop-signal task, Psychophysiology source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationWhen STN is activated, the internal segment of the globus pallidus becomes activated and motor output is suppressed.
“When STN is activated, the internal segment of the globus pallidus becomes activated and motor output is suppressed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [14] Aron, 2007, Triangulating a cognitive control network using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI, J. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [17] Aron, 2006, Cortical and subcortical contributions to stop signal response inhibition: role of the subthalamic nucleus, J. Neurosci. source
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- cites [31] Mostofsky, 2008, Response inhibition and response selection: two sides of the same coin, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMedial frontal regions are commonly linked to detecting errors and conflict between responses and action plans, while middle frontal regions are commonly linked to adjusting behavior after conflict or errors.
“Medial frontal regions are commonly associated with detection of errors and detection of conflict between responses and action plans (monitoring behavior), whereas middle frontal regions are commonly associated with adjusting behavior after conflict or errors [36].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [36] Ridderinkhof, 2004, Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning, Brain Cogn. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSome studies found right IFG activation to some degree on unsuccessful stop trials but not on no-stop-signal trials.
“Some studies showed that right IFG is activated to some degree on unsuccessful stop trials [e.g., 17], but not on no-stop-signal trials [e.g., 17, 18].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [e.g., 17]
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [e.g., 17, 18]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationrTMS over right dorsal premotor cortex affected going but not stopping.
“By contrast, rTMS over right dorsal premotor cortex influenced going but not stopping.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [21] Chambers, 2007, Dissociable mechanisms of cognitive control in prefrontal and premotor cortex, J. Neurophysiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [22] Chambers, 2006, Executive “brake failure” following deactivation of human frontal lobe, J. Cogn. Neurosci.
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationResponse inhibition is impaired in patients with right IFG lesions but not left IFG lesions; the size of the right IFG lesion correlated with SSRT but not go RT.
“Response inhibition is impaired in patients with lesions to right IFG but not left IFG [23]; moreover, the magnitude of the lesion to right IFG correlated with SSRT but not with go RT.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] Aron, 2003, Stop-signal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans, Nat. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThis stimulus-specific slowing can last across many intervening trials and may help automatic inhibition develop.
“This stimulus-specific slowing can persist over many intervening trials [10] and may support the development of automatic inhibition [12].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [10] Verbruggen, 2008, Long-term aftereffects of response inhibition: memory retrieval, task goals, and cognitive control, J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [12] Verbruggen, F. and Logan, G.D. Automatic and controlled response inhibition: associative learning in the go/no-go and stop-signal paradigms. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. (in press)
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningCognitive psychologists have identified a fast stop process that produces immediate inhibition and slower monitoring/adjustment processes that optimize performance.
“Cognitive psychologists have identified the computational mechanisms underlying performance in the stop-signal paradigm, identifying a fast-acting stop process that produces immediate inhibition and slower monitoring and adjustment processes that optimize performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningTaken together, these studies suggest that right IFG, pre-SMA, and basal ganglia form part of a fronto-basal-ganglia inhibition network, though the exact roles of these regions are debated.
“Combined, these studies suggest that right IFG, pre-SMA, and basal ganglia are part of a fronto-basal-ganglia inhibition network, although the exact role of these regions is debated.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationRight IFG shows greater activation when stopping succeeds, and its activation magnitude is negatively correlated with SSRT.
“This region shows increased activation when stopping is successful, and the magnitude of the activation correlates negatively with SSRT [14, 17, 19].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [14] Aron, 2007, Triangulating a cognitive control network using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI, J. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [17] Aron, 2006, Cortical and subcortical contributions to stop signal response inhibition: role of the subthalamic nucleus, J. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [19] Rubia, 2007, Linear age-correlated functional development of right inferior fronto-striato-cerebellar networks during response inhibition and anterior Cingulate during error-related processes, Hum. Brain Mapp. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSingle-cell studies show ACC modulation occurs after SSRT, too late to directly inhibit the response; instead, these neurons signal reward and error.
“Consistent with this idea, single-cell studies show that ACC modulation occurs after SSRT, which is too late to be involved directly in inhibiting the response; instead, the neurons signal reward and error (Box 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Box 1
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationrTMS over right IFG, but not left IFG or right middle frontal gyrus, impaired stopping without impairing going.
“Repetitive TMS (rTMS) of right IFG (but not left IFG or right middle frontal gyrus) impaired stopping but not going [21, 22].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [21] Chambers, 2007, Dissociable mechanisms of cognitive control in prefrontal and premotor cortex, J. Neurophysiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [22] Chambers, 2006, Executive “brake failure” following deactivation of human frontal lobe, J. Cogn. Neurosci.
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSome studies report ACC activation also on successful stop-signal trials, suggesting ACC is involved in monitoring stopping performance.
“Some studies report that ACC is also activated on successful stop-signal trials [e.g., 17], which suggests that this region is involved in monitoring of stopping performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [e.g., 17]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningIn adults with ADHD, SSRT is impaired but go RT is not, suggesting a selective inhibition deficit.
“By contrast, in adults with ADHD, SSRT is impaired but go RT is not, suggesting a selective deficit in inhibition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisereasoningTypically, go RT is unaffected in these disorders, suggesting a selective inhibition deficit.
“Typically, go RT is not affected, suggesting a selective deficit in inhibition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationNeural data suggest a monitoring deficit in ADHD: unsuccessful stopping is associated with reduced ERN amplitude and reduced activation in posterior and anterior cingulate gyrus and left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex.
“However, neural data suggest a monitoring deficit: Unsuccessful stopping in ADHD is associated with a reduced amplitude of the ERN [45] and a reduced magnitude of activation in posterior and anterior parts of the cingulate gyrus and in left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex [46, 47].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [45] Liotti, 2005, Abnormal brain activity related to performance monitoring and error detection in children with ADHD, Cortex source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [46] Rubia, 2005, Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naive adolescents with ADHD, Am. J. Psychiatry source
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- cites [47] Pliszka, 2006, Neuroimaging of inhibitory control areas in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who were treatment naive or in long-term treatment, Am. J. Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe amplitude of non-inhibitory attentional EEG components is also reduced in ADHD, suggesting the response-inhibition deficit may have multiple origins.
“However, the amplitude of non-inhibitory (attentional) components in the electroencephalogram is also reduced in ADHD , which suggests that the response-inhibition deficit may have multiple origins [44].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [44] Bekker, 2005, Disentangling deficits in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningThese OCD fMRI results should be interpreted cautiously because the sample size was small.
“However, these results should be interpreted cautiously because sample size was small.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn children with ADHD, slower SSRT is often accompanied by slower go RT, suggesting a general cognitive-control deficit.
“In children with ADHD, slower SSRT is often accompanied by slower go RT, suggesting a general deficit in cognitive control [38].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [38] Enticott, 2008, Response inhibition and impulsivity in schizophrenia, Psychiatry Res. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThis suggests SEF and ACC are not directly involved in inhibiting movements but are involved in monitoring performance.
“This suggests that SEF and ACC are not directly involved in the inhibition of movements, but instead are involved in monitoring performance [57, 58].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationADHD and compulsive disorders are described specifically as inhibitory disorders.
“Other disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD; for a metanalysis, see 39], and compulsive disorders [40], are described specifically as inhibitory disorders.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [39] Lijffijt, 2005, A meta-analytic review of stopping performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: deficient inhibitory motor control?, J. Abnorm. Psychol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [40] Chamberlain, 2006, Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder and trichotillomania, Am. J. Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningSuccessful stopping may require some general processes that are not unique to response inhibition as well as some specific processes that are unique.
“Successful stopping may require some general processes that are not unique to response inhibition as well as some specific processes that are unique.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSSRT is prolonged in chronic cocaine users, chronic methamphetamine users, and alcohol-dependent subjects compared with normal controls, suggesting a response-inhibition deficit.
“SSRT is prolonged in chronic cocaine users [51], chronic methamphetamine users [52] and alcohol-dependent subjects [48], compared with normal control subjects, suggesting a response-inhibition deficit.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [51] Fillmore, 2002, Impaired inhibitory control of behavior in chronic cocaine users, Drug Alcohol Depend. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [52] Monterosso, 2005, Deficits in response inhibition associated with chronic methamphetamine abuse, Drug Alcohol Depend. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [48] Goudriaan, 2006, Neurocognitive functions in pathological gambling: a comparison with alcohol dependence. Tourette syndrome and normal controls, Addiction source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningPost-error adjustments were not correlated with SSRT, suggesting a dissociation between response inhibition and monitoring/adjustment.
“Post-error adjustments were not correlated with SSRT, suggesting a dissociation of response inhibition and monitoring or adjustment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationA recent fMRI study of OCD found reduced activation in inferior and orbital fronto-striatothalamic regions during successful inhibition and reduced activation in mesial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices during unsuccessful inhibition, suggesting both response inhibition and performance monitoring are impaired in OCD.
“A recent fMRI study of people with OCD found reduced activation in inferior and orbital fronto-striatothalamic brain regions when inhibition was successful and reduced activation in mesial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices when inhibition was unsuccessful. This suggests that response inhibition and performance monitoring are both impaired in OCD [50].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [50] Woolley, 2008, Brain activation in paediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder during tasks of inhibitory control, Br. J. Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningSingle-cell recording's fine temporal resolution allows stronger inferences about brain regions in response inhibition and monitoring: cells modulating before SSRT can contribute directly to inhibition; cells modulating after SSRT cannot and may contribute to monitoring/control.
“The fine temporal resolution of single-cell recording allows stronger inferences about the role of different brain regions in response inhibition and monitoring: Cells that modulate before SSRT can contribute directly to response inhibition; cells that modulate after SSRT cannot contribute directly and may contribute to monitoring and control instead.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIncreasing SSD increases p(respond|signal) because the stop process starts later and finishes later relative to the go process.
“First, increasing SSD increases p(respond|signal): the stop process starts later and therefore, finishes later relative to the go process (Figure IIb).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Logan, 1984, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control, Psychol. Rev. source
Not checked in the free run.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn the interactive race model, SSRT mainly reflects the period before the stop unit is activated, during which stop and go processing are independent, so its predictions match the independent race model.
“In this model, SSRT primarily reflects the period before the stop unit is activated, during which stop and go processing are independent, so its predictions correspond to those of the independent race model [64].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [64] Boucher, 2007, Inhibitory control in mind and brain: an interactive race model of countermanding saccades, Psychol. Rev. source
Not checked in the free run.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In the interactive race model, SSRT primarily reflects the period before the stop unit is activated, during which stop and go processing are independent.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMany stop-signal studies have found slower SSRT in people with ADHD and in their relatives.
“Many stop-signal studies have shown slower SSRT in people with ADHD [39] and in their relatives [41].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [39] Lijffijt, 2005, A meta-analytic review of stopping performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: deficient inhibitory motor control?, J. Abnorm. Psychol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [41] Schachar, 2005, Inhibition of motor responses in siblings concordant and discordant for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Am. J. Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThis fMRI study used only one stop-signal delay in its fMRI phase, which may have influenced performance.
“However, this study used only one stop-signal delay in the fMRI phase of the experiment, which may have influenced performance [2].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] Verbruggen, F. and Logan, G.D. Proactive adjustments of response strategies in the stop-signal paradigm. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. (in press)
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningNeurons in SEF and ACC signal feedback about errors, rewards, and possibly conflict.
“Instead, neurons in SEF and ACC signal feedback about errors, rewards and possibly, conflict.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationBehavioral studies show that stopping eye and hand movements is qualitatively similar, although SSRT is shorter for eye movements.
“Behavioral studies showed that stopping eyes and hands is qualitatively similar, although SSRT is shorter for eye movements [60, 61]”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSSRT is prolonged in people with OCD and their first-degree relatives, people with trichotillomania, and people with Tourette's syndrome.
“SSRT is prolonged in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and their first-degree relatives, people with trichotillomania (repetitive hair pulling), and people with Tourette’s syndrome [e.g., 40, 48, 49].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [e.g., 40, 48, 49]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningStudies in each field suggest that successful stop performance requires effective performance monitoring and behavior adjustment, as well as an efficient stop process, to find an optimal balance between the opposing task demands of the stop-signal paradigm.
“Studies in each field suggest that successful stop performance requires effective performance monitoring and behavior adjustment, as well as an efficient stop process, to find an optimal balance between the opposing task demands of the stop-signal paradigm.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAn fMRI study found greater FEF activation on stop-signal trials and greater SEF activation on unsuccessful stop trials.
“An fMRI study showed greater activation in FEF on stop-signal trials and greater activation in SEF on unsuccessful stop trials [62].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [62] Curtis, 2005, Canceling planned action: an fMRI study of countermanding saccades, Cereb. Cortex source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationProlonged SSRTs in high-risk adolescents predict alcoholism and other substance-abuse disorders, suggesting that prolonged SSRTs in chronic substance users may reflect pre-morbid inhibitory control differences.
“However, prolonged SSRTs in high-risk adolescents predict alcoholism and other substance-abuse disorders [53], which suggests that prolonged SSRTs in chronic substance users may reflect pre-morbid differences in inhibitory control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [53] Nigg, 2006, Poor response inhibition as a predictor of problem drinking and illicit drug use in adolescents at risk for alcoholism and other substance use disorders, J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese inhibitory deficits lead to poor behavioral control, which is characteristic of these disorders.
“These inhibitory deficits result in poor control of behavior, which is characteristic of these disorders.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIncongruent trials produce interference and prolong SSRT in Stroop and flanker tasks.
“Incongruent trials produce interference and prolong SSRT in these tasks [65, 66].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [65] Verbruggen, 2004, The interaction between stop signal inhibition and distractor interference in the flanker and Stroop task, Acta Psychol. (Amst.) source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [66] Verbruggen, 2005, Effects of stimulus-stimulus compatibility and stimulus-response compatibility on response inhibition, Acta Psychol. (Amst.) source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSSRTs are similar for interrupting speech and interrupting manual responses, but SSRT is typically shorter for eye movements than for hand movements.
“SSRTs are similar for interrupting speech and interrupting manual responses [70] but SSRT is typically shorter for eye movements than for hand movements (see Box 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [70] Xue, 2008, Common neural substrates for inhibition of spoken and manual responses, Cerebral Cortex source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationfMRI data suggest right IFG and pre-SMA are involved in inhibition of hand movements and suppression of speech, but STN was activated only for inhibition of hand movements.
“fMRI data suggest that right IFG and pre-SMA are involved in inhibition of hand movements and suppression of speech but STN was activated only for inhibition of hand movements [70].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [70] Xue, 2008, Common neural substrates for inhibition of spoken and manual responses, Cerebral Cortex source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationInhibition of hand movements was associated with activation in more ventral and posterior parts of right IFG, whereas inhibition of eye movements was associated with more dorsal and anterior parts.
“Inhibition of hand movements was associated with activation in more ventral and posterior parts of right IFG, whereas inhibition of eye movements was associated with activation in more dorsal and anterior parts of right IFG.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [71] Leung, 2007, Common and differential ventrolateral prefrontal activity during inhibition of hand and eye movements, J. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationrTMS of right IFG influenced response inhibition but not interference control in a flanker task with stop signals.
“rTMS of the right IFG influenced response inhibition but not interference control in a flanker task with stop signals [21].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] Chambers, 2007, Dissociable mechanisms of cognitive control in prefrontal and premotor cortex, J. Neurophysiol. source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningBecause no eye movements were recorded in the scanner, it is unclear whether the common activation is due to inhibition or performance monitoring.
“However, no eye movements were recorded in the scanner, so it is not clear whether the common activation is due to inhibition or performance monitoring.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenActivation of STN is hard to detect in fMRI.
“However, activation of STN is hard to detect in fMRI.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The stop process begins at the stop-signal delay.
“The model assumes that the stop process begins at SSD, which is observed.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The go and stop processes are stochastically independent in the independent race model.
“The independent race model assumes stochastic independence between the go and stop process.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
In the interactive race model, the go and stop processes are independent for much of their latencies and interact strongly near the end.
“Boucher et al. [64] proposed an interactive race model, in which the go and stop process are independent for much of their latencies and interact strongly near the end (Figure III).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
In the interactive race model, SSRT primarily reflects the period before the stop unit is activated, during which stop and go processing are independent.
“In this model, SSRT primarily reflects the period before the stop unit is activated, during which stop and go processing are independent, so its predictions correspond to those of the independent race model [64].”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The stop-signal task assesses the ability to withhold an already initiated motor response.
“The stop-signal task has proven successful in assessing a specific aspect of cognitive control, the ability to withhold an already initiated motor response (Logan and Cowan, 1984; Verbruggen and Logan, 2008), especially in ADHD (Lipszyc and Schachar, 2010).”
From No evidence of differences in cognitive control in children with autism spectrum disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder: An fMRI study (2019) · cites this paper as Verbruggen and Logan, 2008
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Self-citationDevelopment of inhibitory control across the life span.
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“Some disorders, such as autism [37] and schizophrenia [38], are associated with general cognitive impairments as well as inhibitory deficits.”
BackgroundHorse-race model simulations of the stop-signal procedure
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“Event-related fMRI studies showed that (mainly) parietal and frontal brain regions are more activated when inhibition is unsuccessful [15,16,18,19].”
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- Authors
- Verbruggen, F., & Logan, G. D.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Verbruggen, Frederick
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-11
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 418-424
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2709177
- OpenAlex
- W2157659716
- Semantic Scholar
- aaa995406271ab4dc3ad35f4dcc3aba0c651eaab
- Cited by
- 1,373
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 79 · 2025: 72 · 2024: 115 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 99 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 113 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 114 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 41
- FWCI
- 2.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Vlaamse regering
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH073878, R01–MH073879-01)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- response inhibition, stop-signal task, executive function, action suppression, goal-directed behavior, psychopathology
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cognition, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Neuropsychological Tests, Neurosciences, Psychomotor Performance, Cognitive Science
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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