Spatial and temporal changes in group dynamics and range use enable anti-predator responses in African buffalo

May combine two claims.

Juvenile numbers recovered between 2005 and 2008, with juvenile percentages rebounding to 22%.

“This drop was followed by a recovery in juvenile numbers between 2005 and 2008 (v 2 2004/2005-2008 ¼ 7.0, df ¼ 2, P , 0.05) with juvenile percentages rebounding to 22% (Fig. 1).”

May combine two claims.

Time of day was the strongest driver of habitat preference, with short- and long-term rainfall showing marginal impacts.

“When modeling the role of individual predictor variables, time of day was the strongest driver of habitat preference (P , 0.005), with short-and long-term rainfall showing marginal impacts on habitat preference (both P , 0.01).”

May combine two claims.

In the final model, both long- and short-term rainfall were dropped, with time of day the only remaining significant driver.

“However, when proceeding with the Efroymson algorithm, both long-and short-term rainfall were dropped from the model, with time of day the only remaining significant driver (Appendix B: Table B1).”

May combine two claims.

In the two years following lion reintroduction, 44% of observed lion kills were juveniles, significantly more than the percentage of juveniles observed concurrently in breeding herds (20%).

“In the two years following lion reintroduction, 44% of observed lion kills were juveniles, significantly more (v 2 ¼ 9, df ¼ 1, P , 0.005) than the percentage of juveniles observed concurrently in breeding herds (20%).”

May combine two claims.

Buffalo breeding herds underwent a daily shift in habitat preference, moving from open cleared agricultural lands in the morning to more dense vegetation during the day, then back toward open areas in the evening, remaining in open areas during the night and into the morning.

“Buffalo breeding herds underwent a daily shift in habitat preference, moving from open cleared agricultural lands in the morning to more dense vegetation types during the day (morning-day, z ¼ 4.383, P , 0.005), followed by a shift back toward the open areas in the evening, remaining in these open areas during the night and into the morning (day-evening, z ¼ À2.938, P , 0.005; daynight, z ¼ À3.795”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The two collared buffalo were relocated 167 and 163 times, respectively, and only once together.

“Over the course of the VHF tracking, the two collared buffalo were relocated 167 and 163 times, respectively, and only once were they relocated together.”

May combine two claims.

During observations on buffalo herd interactions with lions (n=11), buffalo groups resisted attempted predation in 100% of all observations later than 2007 (n=5), and fled in 67% of all interactions between 2004 and 2007 (n=6).

“During observations on buffalo herd interactions with lions (n ¼ 11), we witnessed buffalo groups resisting attempted predation in 100% of all observations later than 2007 (n ¼ 5), and fleeing from buffalo in 67% of all interactions between 2004 and 2007 (n ¼ 6).”

May combine two claims.

Positive significant breakpoints associated with the 90 and 100 percentiles were driven primarily (>50% of variation explained) by the number of lions, with positive scaling of group size with population size observed (25-30% variation explained).

“Hierarchical partitioning shows that positive significant breakpoints associated with the 90 and 100 percentiles were driven primarily (.50% of the variation R eports explained) by the number of lions, with a positive scaling of group size with population size observed (25-30% of the variation explained; Table 1).”

May combine two claims.

There are significant breakpoints in percentile group size distributions and direction of change in group size.

“Davies tests results for nonlinear regression of percentiles of group sizes against time for aerial census data in the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa, between 1996 and 2009, indicating significant breakpoints (shown by asterisks) in percentile group size distributions and the direction of the change in group size.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Large predators shape prey behavior in many ecosystems.

“Large predators shape prey behavior in many ecosystems (Sinclair 1985, Berger 2007).”

• cites Sinclair 1985Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Berger 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In African ecosystems, predation plays an important role in structuring ungulate communities, but its relative impact depends on prey body size.

“In African ecosystems, predation plays an important role in structuring ungulate communities (Sinclair et al. 2003); however, the relative impact of predation is dependent on the body size of the prey (Hopcraft et al. 2010).”

• cites Sinclair et al. 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Hopcraft et al. 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Lion have been reintroduced into at least 37 reserves in South Africa over the past two decades, with little follow-up on impacts on prey behavior and demographics.

“In South Africa, lion (Panthera leo) have been reintroduced into at least 37 reserves over the past two decades (Slotow and Hunter 2009), with little follow-up on how these large predators have impacted the behavior and demographics of prey species (but see Hunter andSkinner 1998, Tambling anddu Toit 2005).”

• cites Slotow and Hunter 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Reintroductions of top predators may result in either prey extirpation or manifestation of evolved predator-specific behavior enabling coexistence with large predators and their predation pressure.

“These reintroductions may result in one of two outcomes: either the prey species will be extirpated or the evolved predator-specific behavior will manifest itself in the population, enabling coexistence with the large predators and the predation pressure they exert (Laundre et al. 2001, Berger 2007).”

• cites Laundre et al. 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Berger 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Elk alter activity, feeding, vigilance, and ranging patterns following wolf reintroductions, leading to changes in demographic structure and trophic cascades.

“Elk are known to alter activity patterns (Fortin et al. 2005), feeding patterns (Ripple and Beschta 2003), vigilance behavior (Laundre et al. 2001, Berger 2007), and ranging patterns (Mao et al. 2005) following wolf reintroductions, which ultimately led to changes in the demographic structure of the elk population (Creel et al. 2007) and also trophic cascades (Ripple and Beschta 2003).”

• cites Fortin et al. 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Ripple and Beschta 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Creel et al. 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Large predators (lions and spotted hyaena) were reintroduced into Main Camp in 2003 following a 100-year absence.

“Large predators (lions and spotted hyaena, Crocuta crocuta) were reintroduced into Main Camp in 2003 following a 100-year absence (Hayward and Hayward 2006).”

• cites Hayward and Hayward 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the Serengeti ecosystem, predation pressure overrides interspecific competition as a determinant of spatial distribution in a number of species.

“In the Serengeti ecosystem, predation pressure overrides interspecific competition as a determinant of spatial distribution in a number of species (Sinclair 1985).”

• cites Sinclair 1985Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Following lion reintroduction into Main Camp, juvenile buffalo were killed more often than expected by chance, and this corresponds with observations of an initial majority flee response by buffalo when confronted by lions.

“Following lion reintroduction into Main Camp, juvenile buffalo were killed more often than expected by chance, and this corresponds with our observations of an initial majority flee response by buffalo when confronted by lions.”

May combine two claims.

Buffalo in smaller herds had either lower reproductive ability or reduced juvenile survival.

“This suggests that buffalo in smaller herds had either (1) lower reproductive ability or (2) reduced juvenile survival.”

May combine two claims.

Lions pursued buffalo herds in Southern Kruger National Park an average distance of 1090 ± 443 m (range 100-11000 m), resulting in high levels of juvenile mortality.

“An indication of juvenile mortality resulting from flee responses is the extended distance (average ¼ 1090 6 1 443 m, range ¼ 100-11 000 m) that lions pursued buffalo herds in the Southern Kruger National Park (KNP), resulting in high levels of juvenile mortality (Funston et al. 1998).”

• cites Funston et al. 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Buffalo herd sizes prior to lion reintroduction were either an anomaly and herd sizes have now returned to expected for buffalo, or buffalo that do not suffer predation occur in smaller herds.

“Therefore, buffalo herd sizes prior to lion reintroduction were either an anomaly and herd sizes have now returned to expected for buffalo, or buffalo that do not suffer predation occur in smaller herds.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These 'landscapes of fear' will differ when considering different predator-prey combinations.

“However, these ''landscapes of fear'' will differ when considering different predator-prey combinations.”

May combine two claims.

In Main Camp, lion reintroduction has resulted in what appears to be a shift into open habitats, with a concomitant increase in herd size, which resulted in an increased herd defense.

“Thus, in Main Camp, lion reintroduction has resulted in what appears to be a shift into open habitats, with a concomitant increase in herd size, which resulted in an increased herd defense.”

May combine two claims.

Buffalo in Main Camp, originally characterized by small herds, have switched from a flee to fight response in handling lions, and this response has been associated with increased herd sizes, such that current herd sizes are characteristic of localities that have co-occurring lion and buffalo populations.

“Consequently, our results suggest a mechanism whereby buffalo in Main Camp, originally characterized by small herds, have switched from a flee to fight response in handling lions, and this response has been associated with increased herd sizes, such that current herd sizes are characteristic of localities that have co-occurring lion and buffalo populations.”

May combine two claims.

The majority of the abovementioned populations were estimated to be a similar size to the current population in Main Camp, so population size effects cannot explain the differences observed currently.

“The majority of the abovementioned populations were estimated to be a similar size to the current population in Main Camp, so population size effects cannot explain the differences observed currently”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Prior to lion reintroduction into Main Camp, buffalo were similarly thought to remain in the dense vegetation characteristic of the thicket biome, which may explain the presence of small breeding herds.

“Prior to lion reintroduction into Main Camp, buffalo were similarly thought to remain in the dense vegetation characteristic of the thicket biome (Winterbach and Bothma 1998), which may explain the presence of small breeding herds.”

• cites Winterbach and Bothma 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Increasing herd size is not always advantageous, as elk are more often encountered and attacked by wolves once in larger herds.

“Increasing herd size is not always advantageous, as elk are more often encountered and attacked by wolves once in larger herds (Creel and Winnie 2005).”

• cites Creel and Winnie 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Once in large herds, buffalo are easily encountered.

“Similarly, once in large herds, buffalo are easily encountered (Hayward and Kerley 2005).”

• cites Hayward and Kerley 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Most predator-free buffalo populations occur in areas characterized by dense vegetation.

“A confounding variable is that most predator-free buffalo populations occur in areas characterized by dense vegetation (with Main Camp being no exception)”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The use of these ambush environments creates a landscape with large variations in risk to prey species.

“The use of these ambush environments creates a landscape with large variations in risk to prey species.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Evident shifts in buffalo range use, group size, and activity patterns support the hypothesis that lion reintroduction will drive these observed changes in behavior and that these responses to predation should be greater in magnitude than responses to wolf reintroductions.

“Therefore, evident shifts in buffalo range use, group size, and activity patterns (C.J. Tambling, unpublished data) support the hypothesis that lion (ambush predators) reintroduction will drive these observed changes in behavior and that these responses to predation should be greater in magnitude than responses to wolf reintroductions.”

• cites C.J. Tambling, unpublished dataNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The response of other African bovids will undoubtedly vary depending on the predator-prey combination investigated, with the degree of selection and hunting strategy that each predator has for each specific prey species playing an important role.

“Just as the response of temperate and tropical ungulates varied as a function of predator-prey combination, the response of other African bovids will undoubtedly vary depending on the predator-prey combination investigated, with the degree of selection and hunting strategy that each predator has for each specific prey species playing an important role.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These contrasting approaches by prey to avoid predation highlight the multifaceted strategies that prey species employ to counter reintroduced predators.

“These contrasting approaches by prey to avoid predation highlight the multifaceted strategies that prey species employ to counter reintroduced predators.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Nonselected prey species and prey species responding to coursing predators are expected to display less pronounced shifts in behavior.

“Nonselected prey species and prey species responding to coursing predators are expected to display less pronounced shifts in behavior.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

According to the predation risk allocation hypothesis, prey species are expected to alter their activity and ranging behavior more so than if predation risk was uniform.

“According to the predation risk allocation hypothesis (Lima and Bednekoff 1999), prey species are then expected to alter their activity and ranging behavior more so than if predation risk was uniform (i.e., as provided by coursing predators).”

• cites Lima and Bednekoff 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.