Development and preliminary validation of a trait version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale
Abstract
After developing a trait version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS), we evaluated its reliability, its convergent validity with six other trait mindfulness measures, and its construct validity in relation to prior meditation experience. A sample of nonmeditators (N = 218) and meditators (N = 243) with a wide range of meditation experience completed the Trait TMS and the six other mindfulness measures. Internal consistency reliability of the Trait TMS was comparable to that of the original State TMS. Significant positive correlations were found between both TMS factors and the other mindfulness measures; however, in general, the correlations for TMS Decenter were higher than for TMS Curiosity. Scores for TMS Decenter were shown to increase with meditation experience, but this was not the case for TMS Curiosity. The TMS Curiosity factor may assess a unique aspect of the mindfulness construct. Implications of these findings in relation to future mindfulness research are discussed.
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Use of the FFMQ non-reactivity subscale to assess decentering is justified because of the face validity of the items and previous findings indicating decentering and the non-reactivity subscale are highly interrelated, N = 461, r = .74.
“Such use is justified because of the face validity of the items with respect to the construct of decentering, as well as previous findings indicating decentering and the non-reactivity subscale are highly interrelated, N = 461, r = .74 [81], potentially measuring a common, underlying construct.”
From Testing the mindfulness-to-meaning theory: Evidence for mindful positive emotion regulation from a reanalysis of longitudinal data (2017) · cites this paper as [81]
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“A trait version of the TMS was developed and preliminarily validated in meditators and nonmeditators (Davis et al. 2009).”
MethodPark, T., Reilly-Spong, M., & Gross, C. R. (2013) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-013-0395-8 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
“Curiosity and Decentering scores were higher in meditators than nonmeditators, and scores for the Decentering subscale were shown to increase with meditation experience [70].”
BackgroundMalinowski, P., & Lim, H. J. (2015) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0388-5 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
“Brown and Ryan 2003), two-dimensional (e.g. Cardaciotto et al. 2008; Davis et al. 2009) or multi-dimensional construct with up to five mindfulness facets (Baer et al.”
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“Of a total of eight unidimensional scales, one is primarily a state measure requiring prior meditation (Lau et al., 2006), but a trait version has also been developed (Davis et al., 2009).”
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“2008) and the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (Davis et al. 2009).”
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“…Mindfulness Questionnaire, Baer et al. 2006; Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale–Revised, Feldman et al. 2007; Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale, Cardaciotto et al. 2008; Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire, Chadwick et al. 2008; Toronto Mindfulness Scale Trait Version, Davis et al. 2009).”
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“Additionally, for the FFMQ and TMS, we further divided content specific topics and codes by whether the content was perceived as being a concern or a strength.”
InfluentialMeta-Awareness During Day and Night
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Shorey, R. C., Elmquist, J., Wolford‐Clevenger, C., Gawrysiak, M. J., Anderson, S. T., & Stuart, G. L. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.02.040 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Mindfulness and physical activity: a systematic review and hierarchical model of mindfulness
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Abdollahi, A., Vadivel, B., Huy, D. T. N., Opulencia, M. J. C., Tuấn, P. V., Abbood, A. A. A., Nasirova, Z., Chupradit, S., Allen, K., & Bykanova, O. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.866816 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
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“, 2006) but was adapted to measure trait mindfulness (Davis et al., 2009).”
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Cotter, E. W., & Jones, N. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01266-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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BackgroundResultInfluentialDispositional Mindfulness May Be Associated with Deeper Connections with Nature
Hanley, A. W., Deringer, S. A., & Hanley, R. T. (2017) · Ecopsychology · doi:10.1089/eco.2017.0018 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
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Quickel, E. J. W., Johnson, S. K., & David, Z. (2014) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014560557 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Zeng, X., Oei, T. P. S., Ye, Y., & Liu, X. (2015) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-013-9796-9 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“The Trait Version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (Trait TMS) Davis et al. (2009) 13 items in 2 dimensions: “Curiosity” (6 items) and “Decentering” (7 items) (1) The original state version of TMS (Lau et al.”
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“TMS (Davis et al., 2009; Portuguese version by Gregório & Pinto-Gouveia, 2010) is a 13-item scale assessing two factors of mindfulness trait: curiosity, which reflects an attitude of wanting to learn more about one’s experiences; and decentering, meaning a shift from identifying personally with one’s internal experien…”
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Hytman, L., Amestoy, M. E., Ueberholz, R. Y., & Fiocco, A. J. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02501-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…(MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003), the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006), or the Toronto Mindfulness Scale Trait-Version (TMS; Davis et al., 2009); (4) inclusion of facilitators with clinical training (e.g., clinical psychologists, trainees in clinical psychology, or social…”
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“Specifically, self-reinforcing self-talk was significantly positively correlated with the acting with awareness and non-judging subscales of the FFMQ, in addition to the curiosity and decentering subscales of the TMS-T.”
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Mindfulness or expectancy? The label of mindfulness leads to expectancy effects
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Psychometric Validation of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale – Trait Version in Chinese College Students
Chung, P., & Zhang, C. (2014) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v10i4.776 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Although the feasibility of TMS-T in college students has been examined, the initial validation of the TMS-T (Davis et al., 2009) has only confirmed the internal consistency reliability and convergent validity, but not the structural and concurrent validities (Davis et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAdaptive self-concept: Identifying the basic dimensions of self-beliefs
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“All but one of the items from the self-distance subscale are drawn from the decentering subscale of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (Davis et al., 2009).”
MethodShorey, R. C., Gawrysiak, M. J., Anderson, S. T., & Stuart, G. L. (2014) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22139 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Uebelacker, L. A., Wolff, J. C., Guo, J., Conte, K., Tremont, G., Kraines, M., O’Keeffe, B., Fristad, M. A., & Yen, S. (2023) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13591045221092885 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Finally, to assess potential mediators of outcome, we used the trait version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (Davis et al., 2009), which has two subscales, Curiosity (score range = 0–24) and Decentering (score range = 0–28), and the Self-Compassion Scale Short Form (score range = 12–60; Raes et…”
MethodOliveira, P. D., Juneau, C., Stinus, C., Corman, M., Micheli, N., Pellerin, N., Shankland, R., & Dambrun, M. (2024) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941241246469 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The trait Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS; Davis et al., 2009) is a 13-item, 2-factor self-report measure of individual differences in dispositional mindfulness The TMS-Curiosity (6 items, α = .85) re fl ects an attitude of wanting to learn more about one ’ s experiences (e.g., “ I was curious to see…”
The Relationship Between Decentering and Adaptiveness of Response Styles in Reducing Depression
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“This is consistent with end of practice effects (Lau et al., 2006), and the associated decreases in mindfulness previously noted by Davis, Lau, and Cairns (2009).”
ResultBravo, A. J., Witkiewitz, K. A., Kelley, M. L., & Redman, J. C. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-1047-4 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Heuristics for Mindfulness in Education and Beyond
Powietrzyńska, M. (2015) · Cultural studies of science education · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4240-6_3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Thus, informed by Tobin’s earlier studies on prosody and proxemics and the work of Ekman (2003), Turner (2002) and Collins (2004), we included characteristics referring to the awareness of the expression of emotions in voice, face, and body movements in addition to body temperature, breathing patterns and pulse rates.”
MethodTeaching Mindfulness on an Inpatient Psychiatric Unit
Knight, M. M., Pultinas, D., Collins, S., Sellig, C., Freeman, D. C., Strimaitis, C., Simms, N., & Silver, R. R. (2012) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0175-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
DeMarree, K. G., & Naragon‐Gainey, K. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191120986605 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“To assess convergent validity with existing measures of decentering, we administered the CFQ (Gillanders et al., 2014), the EQ (Fresco et al., 2007), the Toronto Mindfulness Scale–Decentering (TMS; Davis et al., 2009), and the Drexel Defusion Scale (DDS; Forman et al., 2012).”
MethodMindfulness Scholarship and Interventions: A Review
Ivtzan, I., & Hart, R. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139871310.002 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Roquet, C. D., & Sas, C. (2020) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/20819 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Correlations for the decentering subscale with most of the other measures of mindfulness ( r =0.20 to 0.74) were stronger than the correlations between the curiosity subscale and these measures ( r =0.10 to 0.54) [77].”
InfluentialAssessing mindfulness: The Spanish version of the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale
León, J., Fernández, C., Grijalvo, F., & Alonso, J. L. N. (2013) · Studies in Psychology Estudios de Psicología · doi:10.1174/021093913806751447 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sturgess, M. A. (2012) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17003407 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Both factors of the trait version of the TMS were also found to have good convergent validity, in that they demonstrated significant positive correlations with the other mindfulness measures that they were associated with (including MAAS, FMI, KIMS, and the FFMQ), however it should be noted that correlations between T…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialVranceanu, A., Woodworth, E. C., Kanaya, M. R., Bannon, S. M., Mace, R. A., Manglani, H. R., Duarte, B. A., Rush, C. L., Choukas, N. R., Briskin, E. A., et al. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2022.106998 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Mistretta, E. G., Davis, M. C., Bartsch, E. M., & Olah, M. S. (2023) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053231167275 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“mindful decentering subscale was selected for this study because it is a robust mechanism in the cultivation of state and trait mindfulness (Bieling et al., 2012; Davis et al., 2009).”
MethodThe Mindfulness Inventory: Nine Dimensions (MI:ND)
Malouf, E. T., Tangney, J. P., Monfort, S. S., Yarbro, J., Youman, K., & Schrader, S. W. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_26-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Nicol, A. A. M., & France, K. D. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221109096 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…nonjudgmental facets focus exclusively on the self (e.g., Freiburg Mindfulness Questionnaire, Walach et al., 2006; Toronto Mindfulness trait scale, Davis et al., 2009; The Philadelphia Mindfulness scale, Cardaciotto et al., 2008; Southhampton Mindfulness Questionnaire, Chadwick et al., 2008).”
BackgroundFacet Benchmarking: Advanced application of a new instrument refinement method
Siegling, A. B., Furnham, A. F., & Petrides, K. V. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.014 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Cardaciotto, Herbert, Forman, Moitra, & Farrow, 2008) and Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS; Davis et al., 2009).”
MethodBuhk, A. H., Schultz, H., & Bullock, W. A. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10091-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…Cardaciotto et al., 2008), Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (SMQ; Chadwick et al., 2008), Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS; Baer et al., 2004), Toronto Mindfulness Scale Trait version (TMS Trait; Davis et al., 2009), and the Langer Mindfulness Scale (LMS; Pirson et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMeasuring mindfulness: A systematic review and evaluation of self-report mindfulness scales
Chems-Maarif, R., Cavanagh, K., Baer, R., Gu, J., & Strauss, C. (2026) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2026.102719 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hanley, A. W., Lingard, A., & Garland, E. L. (2024) · Journal of Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/jicm.2023.0501 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Initial Validation of the Mindful Presence Scale: The Issue of the Construal Level of Scale Items
Lengyel, A., Keczeli, D., Orosz, R., Bács, Z., Müller, A., Szőke, S., & Bába, É. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626084 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Financial Mindfulness: A Scale
Garbinsky, E. N., Blanchard, S. J., & Kim, L. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241265995 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Such examples with two-factor solutions include awareness and acceptance (e.g., Cardaciotto et al., 2008), decentering and curiosity (e.g., Davis et al., 2009), and presence and acceptance (e.g., Kohls et al., 2009).”
Validation and measurement invariance of the Langer mindfulness scale: the Turkish version
Saraç, M. U., Yıldırım, Y., Eşici, H., Büyüköztürk, Ş., Pagnini, F., & Langer, E. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1474577 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Walach, H., Sauer, S., Kohls, N., Rose, N., & Schmidt, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03671-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Following a well-known tradition in psychometric research, one can operationalize mindfulness either as a transitory and changing state [25–27], or as a trait that is more stable [28–30].”
Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Peters, J. R., & Baer, R. A. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2263-5_12 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Brown, S. M., & Bellamy, J. L. (2017) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/21281 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Scores on the Mindful Curiosity scale range from 0-24 and on the Mindful Decentering scale from 0- 28.”
BackgroundInfluentialApplied Mindfulness Process Scale (AMPS)
Roemer, A., & Medvedev, O. N. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_27-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Gerhardt, E., & Baird, B. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14050496 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The original scale measured state mindfulness and the survey incorporated the trait version of the TMS, asking for experiences during the previous 7 days [53].”
MethodLiyanagedera, N. D., Bareham, C. A., Kempton, H. M., & Guesgen, H. W. (2025) · Brain Informatics · doi:10.1186/s40708-025-00251-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Marocco, S., Vitale, V., Grossi, E., Presaghi, F., & Talamo, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1637669 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Sturgess, M. A. (2012) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17003407.v1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Liyanagedera, N. D., Hussain, A. A., Singh, A. S. G., Lal, S. P., Kempton, H. M., & Guesgen, H. W. (2023) · Brain Informatics · doi:10.1186/s40708-023-00204-9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Trait [4, 42] changes are permanent modifications which are visible in a person after practicing meditation for a long time.”
BackgroundUsing life and death education to guide the teaching and research of mindfulness
Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Chen, S.-C., & Hsu, C.-S. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1576500 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Promoting Wellness Through Mindfulness-Based Activities
Powietrzyńska, M. (2014) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Visvalingam, S., Matheson, A. C., Magson, N. R., & Norberg, M. M. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06238-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“We used the curiosity and decentring subscales from the Toronto Mindfulness Scale-Trait Version (TMS; Davis et al., 2009) to assess aspects of trait mindfulness.”
The use of mindfulness in group work
Michalski, E., & Smith, S. J. (2023) · Social Work With Groups · doi:10.1080/01609513.2023.2257755 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…Mindfulness Scale-Trait Version, the Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale, and the Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (Baer et al., 2004, 2006; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Buchheld et al., 2001; Cardaciotto et al., 2008; Chadwick et al., 2008; Davis et al., 2009; Feldman et al., 2007; Keng et al., 2011).”
A Critical Review of Mindfulness Measures
Miller, M. A., Ye, L., Pavone, K. J., & van Pelt, M. (2024) · Journal of Nursing Measurement · doi:10.1891/jnm-2023-0116 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Brown, S. M. (2016) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Brief mindfulness training to improve mental health with Colombian healthcare professionals
Manotas, M. (n.d.) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sweeney, T. (2016) · Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Who Wants to be Mindful? Personality Predictors of Meditation Practice
Ryakhovskaya, Y., Dam, N. T. V., & Smillie, L. D. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02526-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Specifically, curiosity about one’s experience is often presented as something one should strive to cultivate during mindfulness meditation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003), and a curiosity factor is often identified within trait mindfulness questionnaires (e.g., Toronto Mind-fulness Scale; Davis et al., 2009).”
- Authors
- Davis, K. M., Lau, M. A., & Cairns, D. R.
- Affiliations
- Macquarie University (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy
- Publisher
- Springer Publishing Company
- Published
- 2009-08
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 185-197
- ISSN
- 0889-8391 (ISSN-L)
- 1938-887X
- OpenAlex
- W2077056449
- Cited by
- 150
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 6.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Johns Hopkins University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- trait mindfulness, mindfulness measurement, convergent validity, construct validity, meditation experience, decentering, curiosity, internal consistency
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