Cited by 150Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsReligion, Spirituality, and PsychologyMind wandering and attention

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Development and Preliminary Validation of a Trait Version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale

Davis, Karen M., Lau, Mark A., Cairns, David R.·2009·Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy

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Abstract

After developing a trait version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS), we evaluated its reliability, its convergent validity with six other trait mindfulness measures, and its construct validity in relation to prior meditation experience. A sample of nonmeditators (N = 218) and meditators (N = 243) with a wide range of meditation experience completed the Trait TMS and the six other mindfulness measures. Internal consistency reliability of the Trait TMS was comparable to that of the original State TMS. Significant positive correlations were found between both TMS factors and the other mindfulness measures; however, in general, the correlations for TMS Decenter were higher than for TMS Curiosity. Scores for TMS Decenter were shown to increase with meditation experience, but this was not the case for TMS Curiosity. The TMS Curiosity factor may assess a unique aspect of the mindfulness construct. Implications of these findings in relation to future mindfulness research are discussed.

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Method
The Mindfulness Inventory: Nine Dimensions (MI:ND)
Malouf, E. T., Tangney, J. P., Monfort, S. S., Yarbro, J., Youman, K., & Schrader, S. W. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_26-1 · Cited by 7
Nonjudgmental Regard of Others: Investigating the Links Between Other-Directed Trait Mindfulness and Prejudice
Nicol, A. A. M., & France, K. D. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221109096 · Cited by 9
“…nonjudgmental facets focus exclusively on the self (e.g., Freiburg Mindfulness Questionnaire, Walach et al., 2006; Toronto Mindfulness trait scale, Davis et al., 2009; The Philadelphia Mindfulness scale, Cardaciotto et al., 2008; Southhampton Mindfulness Questionnaire, Chadwick et al., 2008).”
Background
Facet Benchmarking: Advanced application of a new instrument refinement method
Siegling, A. B., Furnham, A. F., & Petrides, K. V. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.014 · Cited by 8
“Cardaciotto, Herbert, Forman, Moitra, & Farrow, 2008) and Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS; Davis et al., 2009).”
Method
What Are They Measuring? Testing the Convergent Validity of State and Trait Mindfulness Measures Across Two Independent Samples.
Buhk, A. H., Schultz, H., & Bullock, W. A. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10091-3 · Cited by 7
“…Cardaciotto et al., 2008), Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (SMQ; Chadwick et al., 2008), Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS; Baer et al., 2004), Toronto Mindfulness Scale Trait version (TMS Trait; Davis et al., 2009), and the Langer Mindfulness Scale (LMS; Pirson et al., 2018).”
Background
Measuring mindfulness: A systematic review and evaluation of self-report mindfulness scales
Chems-Maarif, R., Cavanagh, K., Baer, R., Gu, J., & Strauss, C. (2026) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2026.102719 · Cited by 7
A Single-Session, 2-Hour Version of Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement (One MORE) Improves Chronic Pain Patients' Pain-Related Outcomes Through 3-Month Follow-Up in a Randomized Controlled Trial
Hanley, A. W., Lingard, A., & Garland, E. L. (2024) · Journal of Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/jicm.2023.0501 · Cited by 7
Initial Validation of the Mindful Presence Scale: The Issue of the Construal Level of Scale Items
Lengyel, A., Keczeli, D., Orosz, R., Bács, Z., Müller, A., Szőke, S., & Bába, É. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626084 · Cited by 8
Financial Mindfulness: A Scale
Garbinsky, E. N., Blanchard, S. J., & Kim, L. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241265995 · Cited by 12
“Such examples with two-factor solutions include awareness and acceptance (e.g., Cardaciotto et al., 2008), decentering and curiosity (e.g., Davis et al., 2009), and presence and acceptance (e.g., Kohls et al., 2009).”
Validation and measurement invariance of the Langer mindfulness scale: the Turkish version
Saraç, M. U., Yıldırım, Y., Eşici, H., Büyüköztürk, Ş., Pagnini, F., & Langer, E. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1474577 · Cited by 8
Freiburg mindfulness inventory (FMI) short form and revised form (FMI-13R) — norm scores and psychometrics in a representative German sample
Walach, H., Sauer, S., Kohls, N., Rose, N., & Schmidt, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03671-3 · Cited by 6
“Following a well-known tradition in psychometric research, one can operationalize mindfulness either as a transitory and changing state [25–27], or as a trait that is more stable [28–30].”
How Do Mindfulness-Based Interventions Work? Strategies for Studying Mechanisms of Change in Clinical Research
Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Peters, J. R., & Baer, R. A. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2263-5_12 · Cited by 6
Feasibility, Acceptability, and Clinical Trends of a Mindfulness-Informed Child Welfare Intervention: Implications for Trauma-Focused Practice
Brown, S. M., & Bellamy, J. L. (2017) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/21281 · Cited by 6
“Scores on the Mindful Curiosity scale range from 0-24 and on the Mindful Decentering scale from 0- 28.”
BackgroundInfluential
Applied Mindfulness Process Scale (AMPS)
Roemer, A., & Medvedev, O. N. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_27-1 · Cited by 6
Frequent Lucid Dreaming Is Associated with Meditation Practice Styles, Meta-Awareness, and Trait Mindfulness
Gerhardt, E., & Baird, B. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14050496 · Cited by 5
“The original scale measured state mindfulness and the survey incorporated the trait version of the TMS, asking for experiences during the previous 7 days [53].”
Method
Novel machine learning-driven comparative analysis of CSP, STFT, and CSP-STFT fusion for EEG data classification across multiple meditation and non-meditation sessions in BCI pipeline
Liyanagedera, N. D., Bareham, C. A., Kempton, H. M., & Guesgen, H. W. (2025) · Brain Informatics · doi:10.1186/s40708-025-00251-4 · Cited by 7
The potential of virtual natural environments: a critical analysis of a VR-based mindfulness approach
Marocco, S., Vitale, V., Grossi, E., Presaghi, F., & Talamo, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1637669 · Cited by 5
Psychometric Validation and Demographic Differences in Two Recently Developed Trait Mindfulness Measures
Sturgess, M. A. (2012) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17003407.v1 · Cited by 5
Common spatial pattern for classification of loving kindness meditation EEG for single and multiple sessions
Liyanagedera, N. D., Hussain, A. A., Singh, A. S. G., Lal, S. P., Kempton, H. M., & Guesgen, H. W. (2023) · Brain Informatics · doi:10.1186/s40708-023-00204-9 · Cited by 5
“Trait [4, 42] changes are permanent modifications which are visible in a person after practicing meditation for a long time.”
Background
Using life and death education to guide the teaching and research of mindfulness
Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Chen, S.-C., & Hsu, C.-S. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1576500 · Cited by 4
Promoting Wellness Through Mindfulness-Based Activities
Powietrzyńska, M. (2014) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) · Cited by 4
Intentional Imperfection Program: A pilot randomised controlled trial to help university students manage perfectionism
Visvalingam, S., Matheson, A. C., Magson, N. R., & Norberg, M. M. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06238-4 · Cited by 3
“We used the curiosity and decentring subscales from the Toronto Mindfulness Scale-Trait Version (TMS; Davis et al., 2009) to assess aspects of trait mindfulness.”
The use of mindfulness in group work
Michalski, E., & Smith, S. J. (2023) · Social Work With Groups · doi:10.1080/01609513.2023.2257755 · Cited by 3
“…Mindfulness Scale-Trait Version, the Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale, and the Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (Baer et al., 2004, 2006; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Buchheld et al., 2001; Cardaciotto et al., 2008; Chadwick et al., 2008; Davis et al., 2009; Feldman et al., 2007; Keng et al., 2011).”
A Critical Review of Mindfulness Measures
Miller, M. A., Ye, L., Pavone, K. J., & van Pelt, M. (2024) · Journal of Nursing Measurement · doi:10.1891/jnm-2023-0116 · Cited by 3
A Mindfulness-Based Intervention to Improve Family Functioning Among Child Welfare-Involved Families with Substance Use
Brown, S. M. (2016) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver) · Cited by 3
Brief mindfulness training to improve mental health with Colombian healthcare professionals
Manotas, M. (n.d.) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 3
A convergent parallel mixed methods investigation into the role of mindfulness in moderate to severe, persistent depression
Sweeney, T. (2016) · Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham) · Cited by 3
Who Wants to be Mindful? Personality Predictors of Meditation Practice
Ryakhovskaya, Y., Dam, N. T. V., & Smillie, L. D. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02526-7 · Cited by 2
“Specifically, curiosity about one’s experience is often presented as something one should strive to cultivate during mindfulness meditation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003), and a curiosity factor is often identified within trait mindfulness questionnaires (e.g., Toronto Mind-fulness Scale; Davis et al., 2009).”

Authors: Davis, K. M., Lau, M. A., & Cairns, D. R.
Affiliations: Macquarie University (AU)
ORCID: Davis, Karen M.
Lau, Mark A.
Venue: Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy
Publisher: Springer Publishing Company
Published: 2009-08
Volume: 23
Issue: 3
Pages: 185-197
ISSN: 0889-8391 (ISSN-L)
1938-887X
DOI: 10.1891/0889-8391.23.3.185
OpenAlex: W2077056449
Cited by: 150
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 6.02
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy (publishedVersion)
Funders: Johns Hopkins University
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
Keywords: trait mindfulness, mindfulness measurement, convergent validity, construct validity, meditation experience, decentering, curiosity, internal consistency

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Development and Preliminary Validation of a Trait Version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale

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