Cited by 994Smoking Behavior and CessationChronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) ResearchPrenatal Substance Exposure Effects

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Comparison of tests used to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers

Jarvis, M J, Tunstall-Pedoe, H, Feyerabend, C, Vesey, C, Saloojee, Y·1987·American Journal of Public Health

DOI 10.2105/ajph.77.11.1435

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Abstract

Questionnaire and biochemical measures of smoking were studied in 211 hospital outpatients. Eleven different tests of smoke intake were compared for their ability to categorize smokers and nonsmokers correctly. The concentration of cotinine, whether measured in plasma, saliva, or urine, was the best indicator of smoking, with sensitivity of 96-97 per cent and specificity of 99-100 per cent. Thiocyanate provided the poorest discrimination. Carbon monoxide measured as blood carboxyhaemoglobin or in expired air gave sensitivity and specificity of about 90 per cent. Sensitivities of the tests were little affected by the presence among the claimed nonsmokers of a group of 21 "deceivers" who concealed their smoking. It is concluded that cotinine is the measure of choice, but for most clinical applications carbon monoxide provides an acceptable degree of discrimination and is considerably cheaper and simpler to apply.

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“Such measures are reliable and valid ways of distinguishing regular cigarette smoking from never or occasional smoking (Jarvis et al., 1987).”
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“Despite its low sensitivity for detecting light smokers, the long half-life of thiocyanate makes it a potentially useful test in determining harmful exposure to tobacco smoke ( Jarvis, Tunstall-Pedoe, Feyerabend, Vesey, & Saloojee, 1987 ).”
Background
Long- and Short-term Effects of Tobacco Smoking on Circulating Concentrations of B Vitamins
Ulvik, A., Ebbing, M., Hustad, S., Midttun, Ø., Nygard, O. K., Vollset, S. E., Bønaa, K. H., Nordrehaug, J. E., Nilsen, D. W. T., Schirmer, H., et al. (2010) · Clinical Chemistry · doi:10.1373/clinchem.2009.137513 · Cited by 74
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“A cut-off of 20 ng/ml was used for verification of nonsmoking status [27].”
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“Another important advance at that time was the development of accurate methods of measuring nicotine, cotinine and carbon monoxide in body fluids or expired air [14 – 16].”
Method
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“…the preferred biomarker to measure the level of tobacco smoking, and in serum/plasma samples, a level N14 ng/mL is taken to indicate active smoking (Jarvis et al., 1987; Schluter et al., 2002) although a lower cut-off point of 4.5 ng/mL has recently been suggested, taking into consideration…”
Influential
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“N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript intensity of smoking and metabolism (Benowitz et al., 2009; Jarvis et al., 1987).”
Background
Chronic cough and laryngeal dysfunction improve with specific treatment of cough and paradoxical vocal fold movement
Ryan, N., Vertigan, A. E., & Gibson, P. G. (2009) · Cough · doi:10.1186/1745-9974-5-4 · Cited by 71
“All subjects were non-smokers or ex-smokers with less than 10 pack years and not exposed to current passive smoking and this was confirmed by exhaled carbon monoxide measurement [14,15].”
Method
Maternal Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn
Bearer, C. F., Emerson, R. K., O’Riordan, M. A., Roitman, E., & Shackleton, C. H. L. (1997) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.97105202 · Cited by 71
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“Plasma cotinine levels in our study were similar or higher than those reported in patients with ulcerative colitis treated with the highest tolerated dosage (# 22± 25 mg/16± 24 hr) of transdermal nicotine (13, 14), and similar to those reported in active smokers with ulcerative colitis in remission (20) and in otherwi…”
Result
Fetal exposure to tobacco smoke products: A comparison between self‐reported maternal smoking and concentrations of cotinine and thiocyanate in cord serum
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“TCN is a sensitive marker of tobacco smoke exposure in heavy smokers because of its long half life.(23) In light smokers, TCN is a less sensitive marker, because it is abundant in foods such as broccoli, almonds, beer, and cauliflower.”
Background
Estimation of Cutoff Values of Cotinine in Urine and Saliva for Pregnant Women in Poland
Stragierowicz, J., Mikołajewska, K., Zawadzka-Stolarz, M., Polańska, K., & Ligocka, D. (2013) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2013/386784 · Cited by 69
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“2 ng/ml, which indicated that they were smokers (22).”
Background
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“2,4,17 Yet these measures vary in availability, cost, and ease of administration.”
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“Current smoking exposure was validated by cotinine assay of infant urine and maternal saliva obtained at the time of lung function testing ( 18 ).”
Method
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Background
Oral mucosal changes and nicotine disposition in users of Swedish smokeless tobacco products: a comparative study
Andersson, G., Björnberg, G., & Curvall, M. (1994) · Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0714.1994.tb01106.x · Cited by 65
Breath carbon monoxide as an indication of smoking habit in the military setting.
Low, E., Ong, M. C. C., & Tan, M. (2004) · PubMed · Cited by 64
Effects of alcohol and nicotine on cytotoxic functions of human lymphocytes
Nair, M., Kronfol, Z., & Schwartz, S. A. (1990) · Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology · doi:10.1016/0090-1229(90)90053-s · Cited by 64
Smoking-Induced Elevations in Blood Carboxyhaemoglobin Levels
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“Others have used 9 ppm[22,26,37,44]; 8 ppm[19]; 7 ppm[28]; 6.”
Background
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“However, both in clinical and community settings, there is concern about the validity of self-reported information to define exposure to SHS.(33-36) This is because of a substantial overlap in the cotinine levels between the self-reported SHS unexposed nonsmokers and SHS-exposed nonsmokers.”
Background
Cigarette Smoking in HIV Infection Induces a Suppressive Inflammatory Environment in the Lung
Wewers, M. D., DIAZ, P. T., Wewers, M. E., Lowe, M. P., Nagaraja, H. N., & Clanton, T. L. (1998) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/ajrccm.158.5.9802035 · Cited by 62
“Eighteen of the 38 subjects’ samples contained cotinine at levels greater than 14 ng/ml, which represents the cutoff level that discriminates between smoking and nonsmoking status (27).”
Background
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Jedrychowski, W. A., Perera, F. P., Tang, D. L., Stigter, L., Mróz, E., Flak, E., Spengler, J. D., Mrozek‐Budzyn, D., Kaim, I., & Jacek, R. (2011) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2011.07.020 · Cited by 62
“0 ng/mL was considered the borderline, separating smokers from non-smokers [27,28].”
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“As far as we could determine, first mention of nonsmokers having 10 ng/mL of serum cotinine was also by Jarvis et al.18 However, since serum cotinine reflects exposure to tobacco smoke from all sources including main stream and second hand smoke, Benowitz et al.21 proposed a serum cotinine cut off of 2.99 ng/mL for ad…”
BackgroundInfluential
Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Lung Cancer in Nonsmoking Women-Reply
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Coleman, M. P., Key, T. J. A., Wang, D. Y., Hermon, C., Fentiman, I. S., Allen, D., Jarvis, M. J., Pike, M. C., & Sanders, T. A. B. (1992) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/0021-9150(92)90276-m · Cited by 63
Family and carer smoking control programmes for reducing children's exposure to environmental tobacco smoke
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Biochemically-verified Smoking Rate Trends and Factors Associated with Inaccurate Self-reporting of Smoking Habits in Korean Women
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Detecting smoking following smoking cessation treatment
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“Research indicates that 8 ppm is an optimal cutoff score for reliably discriminating status as a daily smoker (Jarvis et al., 1987).”
Background
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Stevens, K. R., & Muñoz, L. R. (2004) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.20024 · Cited by 60
“CO has lower specificity than cotinine but is easy to obtain, is generally accurate among moderate to heavy smokers, and provides an acceptable degree of discrimination between smokers and nonsmokers (Jarvis et al., 1987) except with light smokers.”
Decreasing smoking prevalence during pregnancy in Sweden: the effect on small-for-gestational-age births.
Cnattingius, S., & Haglund, B. (1997) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.87.3.410 · Cited by 60
Validity of self-reported smoking status: comparison of patients admitted to hospital with acute coronary syndrome and the general population
Pell, J., Haw, S., Cobbe, S., Newby, D., Pell, A., Oldroyd, K., Murdoch, D., Pringle, S., Dunn, F., MacIntyre, P., et al. (2008) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200802023858 · Cited by 57
“(blood, saliva, and urine), with concentrations highly correlated between all three fluids (Jarvis et al., 1987), and is available at concentrations that can be easily quantified.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Serum concentrations of kynurenines in adult patients with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a case–control study
Aarsland, T. I. M., Landaas, E. T., Hegvik, T., Ulvik, A., Halmøy, A., Ueland, P. M., & Haavik, J. (2015) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/s12993-015-0080-x · Cited by 62
Intrauterine exposure to lead may enhance sensitization to common inhalant allergens in early childhood: A prospective prebirth cohort study
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“Maternal blood cotinine level below 15.0 ng/L was considered the borderline value separating smokers from non-smokers (Jarvis et al., 1987; Peacock et al., 1998).”
Influential
Cigarette smoking and glaucoma in the United States population
Law, S., Lu, X., Yu, F., Tseng, V. L., Law, S. K., & Coleman, A. L. (2018) · Eye · doi:10.1038/eye.2017.292 · Cited by 59
Effectiveness of a Brief Self-determination Theory–Based Smoking Cessation Intervention for Smokers at Emergency Departments in Hong Kong
Li, W., Ho, K., Wang, M., Cheung, D., Lam, K., Xia, W., Cheung, K.-Y., Wong, C., Chan, S., & Lam, T.-H. (2019) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.5176 · Cited by 56
A survey of adolescent smoking patterns.
Dappen, A., Schwartz, R. H., & OʼDonnell, R. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 59
Objectively Measured Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease
Hamer, M., Stamatakis, E., Mika Kivimaki, B., Lowe, G. D. O., & Batty, G. D. (2010) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2010.03.032 · Cited by 58
Biochemical verification of smoking status in pregnant and recently postpartum women.
Higgins, S. T., Heil, S. H., Badger, G. J., Mongeon, J. A., Solomon, L. J., McHale, L., & Bernstein, I. M. (2007) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/1064-1297.15.1.58 · Cited by 58
Determination of Tobacco Smoke Exposure by Plasma Cotinine Levels in Infants and Children Attending Urban Public Hospital Clinics
Dempsey, D. A. (2012) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.170 · Cited by 57
A randomized‐controlled trial of low‐dose doxycycline for periodontitis in smokers
Needleman, I. G., Suvan, J. E., Gilthorpe, M. S., Tucker, R., George, G. S., Giannobile, W. V., Tonetti, M. S., & Jarvis, M. J. (2007) · Journal Of Clinical Periodontology · doi:10.1111/j.1600-051x.2007.01058.x · Cited by 57
“This assay has been used widely in previous studies (Jarvis et al. 1987, Smith et al. 1998).”
BackgroundMethod
Quantitation of metabolites of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone after cessation of smokeless tobacco use.
Hecht, S. S., Carmella, S. G., Ye, M., Le, K.-A., Jensen, J. A., Zimmerman, C. L., & Hatsukami, D. K. (2002) · PubMed · Cited by 57
Effectiveness of a High School Smoking Cessation Program
Adelman, W. P., DUGGAN, A. K., Hauptman, P., & Joffe, A. (2001) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.107.4.e50 · Cited by 57
The Tobacco Status Project (TSP): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of a Facebook smoking cessation intervention for young adults
Ramo, D. E., Thrul, J., Delucchi, K., Ling, P. M., Hall, S. M., & Prochaska, J. J. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2217-0 · Cited by 56
“Participants with a salivary cotinine level <11 ng/ml, indicating nonsmoking [50], will be considered confirmed nonsmokers.”
Background
Detection of tobacco-related biomarkers in urine samples by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy coupled with thin-layer chromatography
Huang, R., Han, S., & Li, X. (2013) · Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry · doi:10.1007/s00216-013-7107-7 · Cited by 55
“exposure [30].”
Dietary patterns of female nonsmokers with and without exposure to environmental tobacco smoke
Marchand, L. L., Wilkens, L. R., Hankin, J. H., & Haley, N. J. (1991) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1007/bf00052356 · Cited by 54
Urine Cotinine for Assessing Tobacco Smoke Exposure in Korean: Analysis of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES)
Jung, S., Lee, I. S., Kim, S. B., Moon, C. S., Jung, J. Y., Kang, Y. A., Park, M. S., Kim, Y. S., Kim, S. I., Chang, J., et al. (2012) · Tuberculosis & respiratory diseases · doi:10.4046/trd.2012.73.4.210 · Cited by 54
Conventional and behavioral risk factors explain differences in sub-clinical vascular disease between black and Caucasian South Africans: The SABPA study
Hamer, M., Malan, L., Schutte, A. E., Huisman, H. W., van Rooyen, J. M., Schutte, R., Fourie, C. M. T., Malan, N. T., & Seedat, Y. K. (2010) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.12.015 · Cited by 54
Behaviour change intervention for smokeless tobacco cessation: its development, feasibility and fidelity testing in Pakistan and in the UK
Siddiqi, K., Dogar, O. F., Rashid, R., Jackson, C., Kellar, I., O’Neill, N., Hassan, M., Ahmed, F., Irfan, M., Thomson, H., et al. (2016) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3177-8 · Cited by 56
“Based on the saliva cotinine levels, a cut-off of 15 ng/ml [41, 42] was taken as confirmation of abstinence from smokeless tobacco use.”
Method
Accuracy of self-reported smoking status among participants in a chemoprevention trial
Martı́nez, M. E., Reid, M. E., Jiang, R., Einspahr, J. G., & Alberts, D. S. (2004) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2003.12.006 · Cited by 54
Exhaled Carbon Monoxide Level as an Indicator of Cigarette Consumption in a Workplace Cessation Program in Taiwan
Hung, J., Lin, C., Wang, J., & Chan, C. (2006) · Journal of the Formosan Medical Association · doi:10.1016/s0929-6646(09)60307-7 · Cited by 54
Urinary levels of nicotine & cotinine in tobacco users.
Behera, D., Uppal, R., & Majumdar, S. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 53
Genetic and Environmental Factors in Age-Related Hearing Impairment
Momi, S. K., Wolber, L. E., Fabiane, S. M., MacGregor, A. J., & Williams, F. M. K. (2015) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2015.35 · Cited by 52
“eral days (up to 1 week) with high sensitivity (96–97%) and specificity (99–100%; Jarvis et al., 1987; Pojer et al., 1984).”
Background
The Influence of Smoking and of Oral and Transdermal Nicotine on Blood Pressure, and Haematology and Coagulation Indices
Blann, A. D., Steele, C., & McCollum, C. N. (1997) · Thrombosis and Haemostasis · doi:10.1055/s-0038-1657692 · Cited by 53
The relationship between thought suppression and smoking cessation
Toll, B. A., Sobell, M. B., Wagner, E. F., & Sobell, L. C. (2001) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(00)00140-4 · Cited by 52
Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy of a Web-Based Smoking Cessation Intervention for HIV-Infected Smokers: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Shuter, J., Morales, D. A., Considine-Dunn, S. E., An, L. C., & Stanton, C. A. (2014) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000000226 · Cited by 51
Interaction between smoking rate and anxiety sensitivity: Relation to anticipatory anxiety and panic-relevant avoidance among daily smokers
McLeish, A. C., Zvolensky, M. J., & Bucossi, M. M. (2007) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.11.003 · Cited by 51
“Research indicates that 8 ppm is an optimal cutoff score for reliably discriminating smoking status (Jarvis et al., 1987).”
Background
The effect of proactively identifying smokers and offering smoking cessation support in primary care populations: a cluster‐randomized trial
Murray, R. L., Coleman, T. J., Antoniak, M. D., Stocks, J., Fergus, A., Britton, J. R., & Lewis, S. (2008) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02206.x · Cited by 51
Enhanced Nicotine Metabolism in HIV-1–Positive Smokers Compared with HIV-Negative Smokers: Simultaneous Determination of Nicotine and its Four Metabolites in Their Plasma Using a Simple and Sensitive Electrospray Ionization Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry Technique
Earla, R., Ande, A., McArthur, C. P., Kumar, A., & Kumar, S. (2013) · Drug Metabolism and Disposition · doi:10.1124/dmd.113.055186 · Cited by 51
“Generally, the plasma concentration of nicotine and its metabolites is much lower than that in urine (Jarvis et al., 1987).”
Background
Epigenetic Regulation of Placental NR3C1 : Mechanism Underlying Prenatal Programming of Infant Neurobehavior by Maternal Smoking?
Stroud, L. R., Papandonatos, G. D., Salisbury, A. L., PHIPPS, M. G., Huestis, M. A., NIAURA, R. S., Padbury, J. F., Marsit, C. J., & Lester, B. M. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12482 · Cited by 51
The relationships between urinary phthalate metabolites, reproductive hormones and semen parameters in men attending in vitro fertilization clinic
Al‐Saleh, I., Coşkun, S., Al-Doush, I., Al-Rajudi, T., Abduljabbar, M., Al-Rouqi, R., Palawan, H., & Hassan, S. S. M. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.261 · Cited by 50
Lasting effects of adolescent nicotine exposure on the electroencephalogram, event related potentials, and locomotor activity in the rat
Slawecki, C. J., & Ehlers, C. L. (2002) · Developmental Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0165-3806(02)00455-8 · Cited by 51
The effect of stopping smoking on cervical Langerhans'cells and lymphocytes
Szarewski, A., Maddox, P., Royston, P. J., Jarvis, M. J., Anderson, M., Guillebaud, J., & Cuzick, J. M. (2001) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2001.00074.x · Cited by 51
Assessment of air quality in barcelona by personal monitoring of nonsmokers for respirable suspended particles and environmental tobacco smoke
Phillips, K. (1997) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/s0160-4120(97)00004-4 · Cited by 51
Evaluation of tobacco use cessation (TUC) counselling in the dental office.
Needleman, I. G., Warnakulasuriya, S., Sutherland, G., Bornstein, M. M., Casals, E., Dietrich, T., & Suvan, J. E. (2006) · PubMed · Cited by 51
Smoking cessation interventions among individuals in methadone maintenance: A brief review
Okoli, C. T. C., Khara, M., Procyshyn, R. M., Johnson, J. L., Barr, A. M., & Greaves, L. (2009) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2009.10.001 · Cited by 50
Response of choroidal blood flow to carbogen breathing in smokers and non-smokers
Wimpissinger, B. (2004) · British Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1136/bjo.2003.031773 · Cited by 50
“The results of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire were 0 (0) points for the non-smoking group and 4.0 (0.6) points for the smoking group, indicating nicotine dependence among the smokers. Cotinine levels in urine were 45.1 (11.5) ng/ml in non-smokers and 2025.7 (336.1) ng/ml in smokers. This again clearly indicate…”
BackgroundInfluential
Patterns of tobacco use in the United Arab Emirates Healthy Future (UAEHFS) pilot study
Al‐Houqani, M., Leinberger‐Jabari, A., Alnaeemi, A., AlJunaibi, A., Zaabi, E. A. A., Oumeziane, N., Kazim, M., Al‐Maskari, F., Dhaheri, A. S. A., Wareth, L. A., et al. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198119 · Cited by 50
Objectively Measured Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Mental Health in Children
Hamer, M., Ford, T. J., Stamatakis, E. A., Dockray, S., & Batty, G. D. (2010) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.243 · Cited by 49
“In all children, objective exposure to SHS was assessed using salivary cotinine level, which is a reliable and valid circulating biochemical marker of nicotine exposure.(12,13) A dental roll saturated with the child’s saliva was placed in a tube and later analyzed with a rapid liquid chromatography technique using a H…”
Method
Variation of Serum and Urine Cotinine in Passive and Active Smokers and Applicability in Preconceptional Smoking Cessation Counseling
de Weerd, S., Thomas, C. M. G., Kuster, J. E. T. G., Cikot, R. J. L. M., & Steegers, E. A. P. (2002) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1006/enrs.2002.4395 · Cited by 49

Authors: Jarvis, M. J., Tunstall-Pedoe, H., Feyerabend, C., Vesey, C., & Saloojee, Y.
ORCID: Jarvis, M J
Saloojee, Y
Venue: American Journal of Public Health
Publisher: American Public Health Association
Published: 1987-11
Volume: 77
Issue: 11
Pages: 1435-1438
ISSN: 0090-0036 (ISSN-L)
1541-0048
DOI: 10.2105/ajph.77.11.1435
OpenAlex: W2147528426
Cited by: 994
References: 21
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 44 · 2012: 40
FWCI: 11.10
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
Keywords: smoking detection, cotinine, carbon monoxide, carboxyhemoglobin, thiocyanate, salivary biomarkers, urinary biomarkers, plasma biomarkers, questionnaire-based screening, sensitivity and specificity
MeSH terms: Carbon Monoxide, Chromatography, Gas, Cotinine, Evaluation Studies as Topic, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Nicotine, Pyrrolidinones, Surveys and Questionnaires, Saliva, Smoking, Thiocyanates

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Comparison of tests used to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers

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