The DOI matches its Crossref record.
"General Intelligence," Objectively Determined and Measured
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Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Despite attempts to increase the precision of these estimates through empirical Bayes estimation, estimates of individual teacher effects are measured with error that will attenuate these correlations (Spearman, 1904).”
From Teacher and Teaching Effects on Students’ Attitudes and Behaviors (2017) · cites this paper as Spearman, 1904
In the citing paper
“the variance common across cognitive tasks can be modeled as a latent factor denoted as g (the general factor of intelligence) 9,10”
From Genome-wide association meta-analysis in 269,867 individuals identifies new genetic and functional links to intelligence (2018) · cites this paper as [10]
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–123 of 123
The relationship among geometry, working memory, and intelligence in children
Giofrè, D., Mammarella, I. C., & Cornoldi, C. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.01.002 · Cited by 70
Evidence for a unitary structure of spatial cognition beyond general intelligence
Malanchini, M., Rimfeld, K., Shakeshaft, N. G., McMillan, A., Schofield, K. L., Rodic, M., Rossi, V., Kovas, Y., Dale, P. S., Tucker-Drob, E. M., et al. (2020) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-020-0067-8 · Cited by 69
Feinkohl, I., Keller, M., Robertson, C. M., Morling, J. R., Williamson, R. M., Nee, L. D., McLachlan, S., Sattar, N., Welsh, P., Reynolds, R. M., et al. (2013) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc12-2241 · Cited by 69
The mechanisms of far transfer from cognitive training: Review and hypothesis.
Greenwood, P. M., & Parasuraman, R. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000235 · Cited by 62
Why children with ADHD do not have low IQs
Schuck, S. E. B., & Crinella, F. M. (2005) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194050380030701 · Cited by 64
Eagly, A. H., & Revelle, W. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211046006 · Cited by 60
A Modular Mind? A Test Using Individual Data from Seven Primate Species
Amici, F., Barney, B., Johnson, V. E., Call, J., & Aureli, F. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051918 · Cited by 56
Relational frame theory and human intelligence
Cassidy, S., Roche, B., & O’Hora, D. (2010) · European Journal of Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1080/15021149.2010.11434333 · Cited by 53
Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2010) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/1874350101003010009 · Cited by 48
Executive Functioning and Intelligence
Duggan, E. C., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2015) · Handbook of Intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_27 · Cited by 48
Construct Mixology: Forming New Management Constructs by Combining Old Ones
Newman, D. A., Harrison, D. A., Carpenter, N. C., & Rariden, S. M. (2016) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/19416520.2016.1161965 · Cited by 60
Construct Validity of the WISC–IVUKWith a Large Referred Irish Sample
Watkins, M. W., Canivez, G. L., James, T., James, K., & Good, R. (2013) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2013.794439 · Cited by 43
High intelligence is not associated with a greater propensity for mental health disorders
Williams, C. M., Peyre, H., Labouret, G., Fassaya, J., Guzmán García, A., Gauvrit, N., & Ramus, F. (2023) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.2343 · Cited by 50
Phenotypic and genotypic correlation between myopia and intelligence
Williams, K. M., Hysi, P. G., Yonova-Doing, E., Mahroo, O. A., Snieder, H., & Hammond, C. J. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep45977 · Cited by 28
Nakano, S., & Watkins, M. W. (2013) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21724 · Cited by 27
Robust and sparse correlation matrix estimation for the analysis of high-dimensional genomics data
Serra, A., Coretto, P., Fratello, M., & Tagliaferri, R. (2018) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btx642 · Cited by 25
Popp, J. L., Thiele, J. A., Faskowitz, J., Seguin, C., Sporns, O., & Hilger, K. (2025) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-025-08231-4 · Cited by 17
Wuttke, A. (2020) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-019-09801-w · Cited by 15
Warne, R. T. (2021) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0479 · Cited by 12
Sadoine, M. L., Smargiassi, A., Liu, Y., Gachon, P., Fournier, M., Dueymes, G., Namuganga, J. F., Dorsey, G., Nasri, B., & Zinszer, K. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20227042 · Cited by 10
Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review
Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5
The ARC of Progress towards AGI: A Living Survey of Abstraction and Reasoning
Vahdati, S., Aioanei, A., Suresh, H., & Lehmann, J. (2026) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2603.13372
Metadata
- Authors
- Spearman, C.
- Corresponding author
- Spearman, C.
- Venue
- The American Journal of Psychology
- Publisher
- University of Illinois Press
- Published
- 1904-04
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 201
- ISSN
- 0002-9556 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2133487567
- Cited by
- 6,207
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 205 · 2025: 210 · 2024: 280 · 2023: 272 · 2022: 248 · 2021: 318 · 2020: 369 · 2019: 328 · 2018: 251 · 2017: 280 · 2016: 227 · 2015: 233 · 2014: 255 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 224
- FWCI
- 24.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The American Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Keywords
- general intelligence, intelligence testing, psychometrics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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