Between-Group Mean Differences in Intelligence in the United States Are >0% Genetically Caused: Five Converging Lines of Evidence

Warne, Russell T.

doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0479

Cited by 12Cognitive Abilities and TestingRace, Genetics, and SocietyIntergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies

Between-Group Mean Differences in Intelligence in the United States Are >0% Genetically Caused: Five Converging Lines of Evidence

Warne, Russell T.·2021·The American Journal of Psychology

DOI 10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0479

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Abstract

The past 30 years of research in intelligence has produced a wealth of knowledge about the causes and consequences of differences in intelligence between individuals, and today mainstream opinion is that individual differences in intelligence are caused by both genetic and environmental influences. Much more contentious is the discussion over the cause of mean intelligence differences between racial or ethnic groups. In contrast to the general consensus that interindividual differences are both genetic and environmental in origin, some claim that mean intelligence differences between racial groups are completely environmental in origin, whereas others postulate a mix of genetic and environmental causes. In this article I discuss 5 lines of research that provide evidence that mean differences in intelligence between racial and ethnic groups are partially genetic. These lines of evidence are findings in support of Spearman’s hypothesis, consistent results from tests of measurement invariance across American racial groups, the mathematical relationship that exists for between-group and within-group sources of heritability, genomic data derived from genome-wide association studies of intelligence and polygenic scores applied to diverse samples, and admixture studies. I also discuss future potential lines of evidence regarding the causes of average group differences across racial groups. However, the data are not fully conclusive, and the exact degree to which genes influence intergroup mean differences in intelligence is not known. This discussion applies only to native English speakers born in the United States and not necessarily to any other human populations.

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Substantive accounts of group differences, such as genetic or socio-cultural accounts, are based on biological or environmental factors that are unlikely to be mitigated through changes to testing procedures.
“Substantive accounts, such as genetic group differences (e.g., Warne, 2021) or socio-cultural differences (e.g., Hausdorf & Robie, 2018), are based on biological or environmental factors that are unlikely to be mitigated through changes to testing procedures.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Warne, 2021

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“Within these groups of admixed individuals, there is a positive correlation ( r = .23 to .30) between intelligence and the degree of European ancestry an individual possesses (Hu, Lasker, Kirkegaard, & Fuerst, 2019; Kirkegaard et al., 2019; Lasker, Pesta, Fuerst, & Kirkegaard, 2019; Warne, 2020a).”
Background
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Self-citation
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“These correlations vary but are consistently positive (e.g., r = .84 in Dahlke & Sackett, 2017; r = .59 in Jensen, 1985; r = .46 in Kane, 2007; r = .57 in te Nijenhuis & van den Hoek, 2016; r = .723 to r = .817 in Warne, 2016b).”
Background
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“This shortcoming arises because the method does not detect violations of statistical assumptions that must be met in order to justify such conclusions (Dolan & Hamaker, 2001; Lubke, Dolan, & Kelder-man, 2001; Wicherts, 2017).”
Method
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Self-citation
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Flagged first, then by citations

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Authors: Warne, R. T.
Affiliations: Utah Valley University (US)
Corresponding author: Warne, Russell T.
ORCID: Warne, Russell T.
Venue: The American Journal of Psychology
Publisher: University of Illinois Press
Published: 2021-12-01
Volume: 134
Issue: 4
Pages: 480-501
ISSN: 0002-9556 (ISSN-L)
1939-8298
DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0479
OpenAlex: W4210735111
Cited by: 12
References: 137
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 2
FWCI: 1.93
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: The American Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Race, Genetics, and Society
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
Keywords: intelligence, racial differences in intelligence, ethnic differences in intelligence, heritability, environmental influences, Spearman's hypothesis, measurement invariance, genome-wide association study, polygenic risk score, admixture, United States

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Between-Group Mean Differences in Intelligence in the United States Are >0% Genetically Caused: Five Converging Lines of Evidence

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