The Cephalic Insulin Response to Meal Ingestion in Humans Is Dependent on Both Cholinergic and Noncholinergic Mechanisms and Is Important for Postprandial Glycemia
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We studied the mechanisms and physiological relevance of the cephalic insulin response to meal ingestion in 12 healthy women (age 63 ± 0.4 years; BMI 27.7 ± 1.7 kg/m2). The ganglionic antagonist, trimethaphan, which impairs neurotransmission across parasympathetic and sympathetic autonomic ganglia, or atropine or saline was given intravenously during the first 15 min after ingestion of a standard meal (350 kcal). During saline infusion, insulin levels increased during the first 10 min after meal ingestion, whereas the first increase in glucose was evident at 15 min. The preabsorptive 10-min insulin response was reduced by 73 ± 11% by trimethaphan (P = 0.009), accompanied by impaired reduction of glucose levels from 25 to 60 min after meal ingestion (Δglucose = –1.27 ± 0.5 [with saline] vs. 0.1 ± 0.4 mmol/l [with trimethaphan]; P = 0.008). This reduction at 25–60 min in glucose levels correlated significantly to the 10-min insulin response (r = 0.65, P = 0.024). The 10-min insulin response to meal ingestion was also reduced by atropine, but only by 20 ± 9% (P = 0.045), which was lower than the reduction with trimethaphan (P = 0.004). The preabsorptive insulin response was not accompanied by any increase in circulating levels of gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) or glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). In conclusion, 1) the early preabsorptive insulin response to meal ingestion in humans can be largely attributed to autonomic activation mediated by noncholinergic and cholinergic mechanisms, 2) this cephalic insulin response is required for a normal postprandial glucose tolerance, and 3) GIP and GLP-1 do not contribute to the preabsorptive cephalic phase insulin response to meal ingestion.
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The neural mechanism underlying cephalic phase insulin response includes cholinergic and non-cholinergic processes and the dorsal vagal complex located in the medulla oblongata.
“The neural mechanism underlying cephalic phase insulin response was found to include cholinergic and non-cholinergic processes136 as well as the dorsal vagal complex located in the medulla oblongata.137”
From Pancreatic regulation of glucose homeostasis. (2016) · cites this paper as [136]
Cephalic phase insulin response is pivotal for ensuring normal postprandial glucose management.
“Moreover, cephalic phase insulin response is pivotal for ensuring normal postprandial glucose management.136”
From Pancreatic regulation of glucose homeostasis. (2016) · cites this paper as [136]
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“The insulin released during the cephalic phase depends on the functional integrity of the vagus nerve, especially of its hepatic and gastric branches (Berthoud and Powley, 1990; Herath et al., 1999; Ahrén and Holst, 2001).”
Food Perception Primes Hepatic ER Homeostasis via Melanocortin-Dependent Control of mTOR Activation
Brandt, C., Nolte, H., Henschke, S., Engström, L., Awazawa, M., Morgan, D. A., Gabel, P., Sprenger, H., Hess, M. E., Günther, S., et al. (2018) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.10.015 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Physiology of Incretins in Health and Disease
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“Sham-feeding does not alter GLP-1 concentrations [53], while basal GLP-1 and GIP concentrations remain unchanged in the preabsorptive (cephalic) period [54], and are unaffected by the non-specific muscarinic blocker atropine.”
BackgroundHow neural mediation of anticipatory and compensatory insulin release helps us tolerate food
Teff, K. L. (2011) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.01.012 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“Conversely, the infusion of somatostatin during the beginning of meal onset to inhibit early insulin release has been shown to impair glucose tolerance in normal healthy subjects [56] as has the infusion of trimethaphan, a ganglionic antagonist which also inhibits early insulin release [57].”
Functional neuroimaging of gastric distention
Stephan, E., Pardo, J. V., Faris, P. L., Hartman, B. K., Kim, S. W., Ivanov, E. H., Daughters, R. S., Costello, P. A., & Goodale, R. L. (2003) · Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery · doi:10.1016/s1091-255x(03)00071-4 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
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“It has been described that, although PIR is weak and probably represents only a minor proportion of secreted insulin, it may have an important influence on glycemic response (Ahr en and Holst, 2001).”
BackgroundLindgren, O., Mari, A., Deacon, C. F., Carr, R. D., Winzell, M. S., Vikman, J., & Ahrén, B. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2009-0366 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“One possibility could be neural factors; it is well known that the initial insulin secretion after meal ingestion is neurally mediated during the so-called cephalic phase (20).”
BackgroundEmerging Therapies Mimicking the Effects of Amylin and Glucagon-Like Peptide 1
Riddle, M. C., & Drucker, D. J. (2006) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.29.02.06.dc05-1267 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“A long-recognized example is the “cephalic phase” of insulin secretion (47,60).”
BackgroundRegulation of Chylomicron Secretion: Focus on Post-Assembly Mechanisms
Xiao, C., Stahel, P., & Lewis, G. F. (2018) · Cellular and Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology · doi:10.1016/j.jcmgh.2018.10.015 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“A cephalic phase response of insulin secretion may involve both cholinergic and noncholinergic autonomic activation.(90) Sham fat feeding is associated with cephalic phase responses, including release of pancreatic polypeptide, insulin, and CM TGs, which is believed to be related to vagal stimulation and increased par…”
BackgroundThe Incretin Approach for Diabetes Treatment
Holst, J. J., & Ørskov, C. (2004) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.53.suppl_3.s197 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Thus, dysfunction of the autonomic innervation of the islets could be responsible, perhaps particularly with respect to the early insulin response to meal (5,6).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGlucagon-related peptide 1 (GLP-1): hormone and neurotransmitter
Larsen, P. J., & Holst, J. J. (2004) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2004.08.026 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman pancreatic neuro-insular network in health and fatty infiltration
Tang, S.-C., Baeyens, L., Shen, C.-N., Peng, S.-J., Chien, H.-J., Scheel, D. W., Chamberlain, C. E., & German, M. (2017) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-017-4409-x · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Sensory nerves contribute to insulin secretion by glucagon-like peptide-1 in mice
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“The idea that GLP-1 activates autonomic nerves to the pancreas, which may contribute to the insulin response after meal ingestion, may also partially explain findings that neuronal ganglionic blockade reduces the insulin response to meal intake (4).”
BackgroundBurcelin, R., & Gourdy, P. (2016) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12465 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Åhrén, B., & Pacini, G. (2002) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00199.2002 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Törrönen, R., Sarkkinen, E. S., Niskanen, T. H., Tapola, N. S., Kilpi, K., & NISKANEN, L. K. (2011) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114511004557 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Despite the magnitude of the CPIR being low, just detectable, it plays a significant physiological role preparing the body for the more efficient handling of the nutrients((29)).”
K-cells and Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide in Health and Disease
Cho, Y. M., & Kieffer, T. J. (2010) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-381517-0.00004-7 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Nutrition and taste and smell dysfunction
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Role of VIP and PACAP in islet function
Winzell, M. S., & Åhrén, B. (2007) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2007.04.024 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Unravelling innervation of pancreatic islets
Hampton, R. F., Jiménez-González, M., & Stanley, S. A. (2022) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-022-05691-9 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Atropine also blunts postprandial insulin release in monkeys [84] and after nutrient infusion in rats [85].”
BackgroundCopy Number Polymorphism of the Salivary Amylase Gene: Implications in Human Nutrition Research
Santos, J. L., Saus, E., Smalley, S. V., Cataldo, L. R., Alberti, G., Parada, J., Gratacòs, M., & Estivill, X. (2012) · Lifestyle Genomics · doi:10.1159/000339951 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Hypothalamic Obesity: The Sixth Cranial Endocrinopathy
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The neuropeptide pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide and islet function.
Filipsson, K., Kvist-Reimer, M., & Bo, A.-R. (2001) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.50.9.1959 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Bedinger, D., & Adams, S. H. (2015) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2015.08.013 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Use and importance of nonhuman Primates in metabolic disease research: current state of the field
Havel, P. J., Kievit, P., Comuzzie, A. G., & Bremer, A. A. (2017) · ILAR Journal · doi:10.1093/ilar/ilx031 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Wice, B. M., Wang, S., Crimmins, D. L., Diggs‐Andrews, K. A., Althage, M. C., Ford, E. L., Tran, H. D., Ohlendorf, M. F., Griest, T. A., Wang, Q., et al. (2010) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m110.129304 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
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“Moreover, the effects of GIP on ISRs remained elevated even after this initial transient response, suggesting that like the cephalic response (32), this early response to GIP may play an important role in amplifying subsequent insulin secretion.”
BackgroundSuzuki, H., Fukushima, M., Okamoto, S., Takahashi, O., Shimbo, T., Kurose, T., Yamada, Y., Inagaki, N., Seino, Y., & Fukui, T. (2005) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2005.06.006 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Preabsorptive or cephalic-phase insulin release, a vagally mediated response, occurs within the first few minutes of food ingestion [6] and is thought to be required for normal postprandial glucose tolerance [7].”
BackgroundNeuropeptides and the Regulation of Islet Function
Åhrén, B., Wierup, N., & Sundler, F. (2006) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db06-s013 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Reproduced with permission from the American Diabetes Association (7).”
BackgroundInfluentialSweet Taste Is Complex: Signaling Cascades and Circuits Involved in Sweet Sensation
von Molitor, E., Riedel, K., Krohn, M., Hafner, M., Rudolf, R., & Cesetti, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.667709 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“CPIR is important to prepare the body for ingestion, digestion, and storage of carbohydrate (Ahrén and Holst, 2001; Smeets et al., 2010).”
BackgroundThe Cholinergic System Controls Ghrelin Release and Ghrelin-Induced Growth Hormone Release in Humans
Maier, C., Schaller, G., Buranyi, B., Nowotny, P., Geyer, G., Wolzt, M., & Luger, A. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0656 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Pancreatic neuro-insular network in young mice revealed by 3D panoramic histology
Tang, S., Shen, C., Lin, P.-Y., Peng, S.-J., Chien, H., Chou, Y.-H., Chamberlain, C. E., & Pasricha, P. J. (2017) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-017-4408-y · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Ranawana, V., Henry, C. J., & Pratt, M. (2010) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2010.06.002 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Dhillon, J., Lee, J. Y., & Mattes, R. D. (2017) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.09.009 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Beta cell connectivity in pancreatic islets: a type 2 diabetes target?
Rutter, G., & Hodson, D. (2015) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-014-1755-4 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Such activation underpins the cephalic phase of 11 insulin secretion in anticipation of food [77].”
Effect of sucralose and aspartame on glucose metabolism and gut hormones
Ahmad, S. Y., Friel, J. K., & MacKay, D. (2019) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuz099 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Chien, H.-J., Chiang, T.-C., Peng, S.-J., Chung, M.-H., Chou, Y.-H., Lee, C.-Y., Jeng, Y., Yu-Wen, T., & Tang, S.-C. (2019) · American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00116.2019 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Autonomic Dysfunction of the β-Cell and the Pathogenesis of Obesity
Lustig, R. H. (2003) · Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1023/a:1021819318484 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“This phenomenon is responsible for the vagally-mediated “cephalic” or preabsorptive phase of insulin secretion, which is glucose-independent and can be blocked by atropine [ 39 ].”
BackgroundRossi, J., Santamäki, P., Airaksinen, M. S., & Herzig, K.-H. (2005) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.54.5.1324 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Ahren and Holst (40) suggested that a failure of islet parasympathetic innervation may be involved in the development of glucose intolerance and that augmentation of neural-induced insulin secretion might be a target for treatment of islet dysfunction in diabetes.”
BackgroundThe elusive cephalic phase insulin response: triggers, mechanisms, and functions
Langhans, W., Watts, A. G., & Spector, A. C. (2022) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00025.2022 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Holst, J. J., Albrechtsen, N. J. W., ROSENKILDE, M. M., & Deacon, C. F. (2019) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c180013 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationKokrashvili, Z., Yee, K. K., Ilegems, E., Iwatsuki, K., Li, Y., Mosinger, B. J., & Margolskee, R. F. (2014) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114513002262 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Cephalic-phase responses are well established for insulin and ghrelin((7,8)), but controversial or thought not to occur with the incretin hormones GLP-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide((15)).”
BackgroundCephalic phase secretion of insulin and other enteropancreatic hormones in humans.
Veedfald, S., Plamboeck, A., Deacon, C., Hartmann, B., Knop, F., Vilsbøll, T., & Holst, J. (2016) · American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00222.2015 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“The absence of a cephalic phase of GLP-1 secretion is in accord with other human data (2, 21, 46).”
ResultSelf-citationSuarez, A. N., Noble, E. E., & Kanoski, S. E. (2019) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2019.00101 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“In addition to this endocrine metabolic pathway, a neural pathway via vagal inputs to the pancreas mediates a cephalic insulin response, which elevates insulin secretion within the first few minutes of initiating a meal (triggered, in part, by oral nutrient detection; Berthoud et al., 1981; Powley, 2000; Ahrén and Hol…”
BackgroundMechanisms and effects of “fat taste” in humans
Tucker, R. M., Mattes, R. D., & Running, C. A. (2014) · BioFactors · doi:10.1002/biof.1162 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Incretin Hormone Secretion Over the Day
Åhrén, B., Carr, R. D., & Deacon, C. F. (2010) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-381517-0.00007-2 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Fridlyand, L. E., & Philipson, L. H. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152869 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“This increase, termed "cephalic phase", is thought to be largely mediated by the release of acetylcholine from nerves innervating pancreatic islets or from the alpha cells [6, 62, 180].”
BackgroundSalehi, M., Woods, S. C., & D’Alessio, D. A. (2015) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.21186 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“However, beyond premeal insulin secretion, parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activation has been found to make an important contribution to the b-cell response to food intake (26,27).”
BackgroundImaging of the islet neural network
Tang, S.-C., Peng, S.-J., & Chien, H.-J. (2014) · Diabetes, obesity and metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.12342 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“The physiological importance of islet parasympathetic innervation has been suggested by its potential roles in mediating the cephalic phase of insulin secretion [4,34,35] and synchronizing the pulsatile insulin secretion from individual”
BackgroundChaikomin, R., Wu, K.-L., Doran, S., Jones, K., Smout, A., Renooij, W., Holloway, R., Meyer, J. H., Horowitz, M., & Rayner, C. (2007) · American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00519.2006 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“There is good evidence, on the other hand, that first-phase insulin secretion is under autonomic control (1) and therefore could be inhibited by hyoscine.”
BackgroundMármol, P., Pardo, B., Wiederkehr, A., del Arco, A., Wollheim, C. B., & Satrústegui, J. (2008) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m806729200 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Food anticipatory hormonal responses: a systematic review of animal and human studies.
Skvortsova, A., Veldhuijzen, D., Kloosterman, I. E. M., Pacheco-López, G., & Evers, A. (2021) · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.03.030 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Satiety and substrate mobilization after oral fat stimulation
Smeets, A. J. P. G., & Westerterp‐Plantenga, M. S. (2006) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn20051725 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…20051725 Published online by Cam bridge U niversity Press The duration of the effects we observed as increased glucose and insulin concentrations indicate that not just a cephalic response, but also vagal stimulation appeared to be achieved by MSF (Ahren & Holst, 2001).”
BackgroundEvidence for cephalic phase insulin release in humans: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Wiedemann, S. J., Rachid, L., Illigens, B. M. W., Böni‐Schnetzler, M., & Donath, M. Y. (2020) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.104792 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“…responses to ingestive S.J. Wiedemann et al. Appetite 155 (2020) 104792 stimuli have reported a rise in blood glucose only 10 min after food intake (Ahrén & Holst, 2001; Teff, Levin, et al., 1993), we nonetheless assessed whether a more stringent analysis only including studies that report…”
BackgroundNatali, A., Ribeiro, R. T., Baldi, S., Tulipani, A., Rossi, M., Venturi, E., Mari, A., Macedo, M. P., & Ferrannini, E. (2013) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-013-2836-x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Therefore, neural control mechanisms, such as the parasympathetic cholinergic outflow to the pancreas (the cephalic phase of insulin secretion [28, 29]), may be involved.”
BackgroundTherapeutic potential of VIP vs PACAP in diabetes
Şanlioğlu, A. D., Karaçay, B., Balcı, M. K., Griffith, T. S., & Şanlıoğlu, S. (2012) · Journal of Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/jme-12-0156 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Endocrine Cephalic Phase Responses to Food Cues: A Systematic Review
Lasschuijt, M. P., Mars, M., de Graaf, C., & Smeets, P. A. M. (2020) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa059 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“A cephalic insulin response of this size would correspond to only 1% of the total postprandial insulin response (AUC) after a mixed nutrient meal (26).”
BackgroundXie, H., Yepuri, N., Meng, Q., Dhawan, R., Leech, C. A., Chepurny, O., Holz, G. G., & Cooney, R. (2020) · Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11154-020-09584-3 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Brain Control of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion
Osundiji, M. A., & Evans, M. L. (2012) · Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2012.11.006 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Nicotine’ actions on energy balance: Friend or foe?
Seoane‐Collazo, P., Diéguez, C., Nogueiras, R., Rahmouni, K., Fernández‐Real, J. M., & López, M. (2020) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107693 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Thus, ACh release from α -cells in human islets and parasympathetic nerves in both mouse and human appears tostimulate the pre-absorptive phase of insulin secretion (Ahren & Holst, 2001; Rodriguez-Diaz et al., 2011; Rodriguez-Diaz et al., 2011).”
Ganic, E., Singh, T., Luan, C., Fadista, J., Johansson, J. K., Cyphert, H. A., Bennet, H., Storm, P., Prost, G., Ahlenius, H., et al. (2016) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2016.02.002 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“This is in contrast to previous findings that pre-absorptive insulin secretion is inhibited by the nicotinic ganglionic blocker trimethaphan but only partially impaired by muscarinic antagonists (Ahrén and Holst, 2001), which argues for a function of nicotinic receptor activity in human islet cells.”
BackgroundResultNeuroendocrine mechanisms in insulin resistance
Sjöstrand, M., & Eriksson, J. G. (2008) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2008.05.010 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“This vagus mediated insulin secretion can be blocked by atropine and is called the cephalic insulin response (43).”
BackgroundHuman amylase gene copy number variation as a determinant of metabolic state
Elder, P., Ramsden, D. B., Burnett, D. A., Weickert, M. O., & Barber, T. M. (2018) · Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1080/17446651.2018.1499466 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“CPIR is required for normal postprandial glucose tolerance [14,69] and mediated primarily by autonomic mechanisms triggered by oral sensory stimulation [69].”
Background
- Authors
- Ahrén, B., & Holst, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden, and
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- ORCID
- Holst, Jens J.
- Venue
- Diabetes
- Publisher
- American Diabetes Association
- Published
- 2001-05-01
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1030-1038
- ISSN
- 0012-1797 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-327X
- OpenAlex
- W2168149788
- Cited by
- 292
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 8.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Diabetes (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Pancreatic function and diabetes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Keywords
- meal ingestion, postprandial blood glucose, cholinergic mechanisms, trimethaphan, atropine, autonomic nervous system, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, glucagon-like peptide-1, glucose tolerance
- MeSH terms
- Insulin Secretion, Blood Glucose, Blood Pressure, Eating, Female, Ganglionic Blockers, Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide, Glucagon, Humans, Insulin, Middle Aged, Peptide Fragments, Protein Precursors, Reference Values, Time Factors, Trimethaphan, Body Mass Index, Postmenopause, Postprandial Period, Area Under Curve, Glucagon-Like Peptide 1
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