Feedback in Written Instruction
Abstract
When students respond to an instructional communication, telling them whether or not their answer is correct increases the amount of material remembered on a later test (Anderson, Kulhavy, & Andre, 1971; Gilman, 1969; Meyer, 1960). Unfortunately, the mechanisms responsible for such facilitation are frequently misunderstood, and one can find numerous examples in both research and instructional development where feedback is used inappropriately, neutralizing any positive effects it might have on student performance. The main purpose of this paper is to provide an integration of the work done on feedback processes, especially as these results apply to written lessons and the design of instructional materials. Finally, this discussion makes no attempt to cover the more task specific literature dealing with motor learning, simple concept acquisition, or paired-associates, since excellent reviews already exist in these areas (Adams, 1968; Ammons, 1956; Bilodeau, 1966; Bourne, 1966; Renner, 1964).
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Feedback that immediately supplies learners with correct answers can be limiting; once answers are revealed, learners often disengage from deep thinking and simply copy the solutions.
“However, feedback that immediately supplies learners with correct answers can be limiting for many learners. Once answers are revealed, learners often disengage from deep thinking and simply copy the solutions (Kulhavy, 1977), a tendency that is especially detrimental to learners' agency in problem-solving contexts.”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Kulhavy, 1977
Immediate provision of correct answers may encourage students to copy the answer without fully engaging in understanding.
“During the learning process, immediate provision of correct answers may encourage students to copy the answer without fully engaging in understanding (Kulhavy, 1977).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Kulhavy, 1977
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Sorted by citations
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“Under this condition, feedback should have minimal effect regardless of whether or not the response is the correct one” (Kulhavy, 1977, p. 226).”
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“Response Certitude Kulhavy and Stock (1989) examined feedback and response certitude issues from an information-processing perspective.”
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Sadler, D. R. (1989) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00117714 · Cited by 4,285 · see citing works
“In many cases feedback and formative assessment (or their equivalents) are not mentioned at all in either the body of the text or the index, although the books by Rowntree (1977), Bloom, Madaus and Hastings (1981), Black and Dockrell (1984) and Chater (1984) are notable exceptions.”
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“Another work sometimes cited as evidence is Kulhavy (1977).”
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“Research that examined the effects of feedback on learning from text was reviewed thoroughly by Kulhavy (1977).”
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“Reviewing research on feedback effects in written instruction, Kulhavy (1977) generated four propositions.”
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“It is not feasible here to summarise the findings from the four major reviews of feedback carried out by Natriello (1987), Crooks (1988), Black and Wiliam (1998), and Hattie and”
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“With EF, however, the distinction between feedback (in terms of corrections) and instruction fades (Hattie & Timperley, 2007) because “the process itself takes on the forms of new instruction, rather than informing the student solely about correctness” (Kulhavy, 1977, p. 212).”
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“Kulhavy (1977) coined the term presearch availability to describe the ease with which learners can find a correct answer without reading the lesson material.”
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“By the time a comprehensive review of feedback studies was completed in 1977 (Kulhavy, 1977), research on the effects of feedback in instruction was concerned primarily with applying information-processing models to the feedback paradigm.”
BackgroundSelf-citationTest format and corrective feedback modify the effect of testing on long-term retention
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“…have contended that feedback is functionally different from reinforcement and that delayed feedback is more effective because it gives errors a chance to dissipate, making the process of learning the correct response easier (e.g., Kulhavy , 1977; Kulhavy & Anderson, 1972; Kulhavy & Stock, 1989).”
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“Kulhavy (1977) argued against any reinforcing quality of feedback by demonstrating that feedback did not benefit learning in verbal conditioning paradigms as reinforcement does in other situations.”
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“The benefit of providing delayed feedback after incorrect responses may be the result of a decrease in response competition between the incorrect and correct responses (see also Kulhavy, 1977 ).”
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“resulting in poorer learning than without feedback (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991; Kulhavy, 1977).”
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“Similarly, instructional explanations can even be harmful because they hinder learners in generating explanatory justifications of solution steps by themselves (Kulhavy, 1977).”
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“…negative effects when it reduces mindfulness (e.g., overrelying on the feedback; Butler & Winne, 1995), draws attention to the self (e.g., evaluating one’s abilities; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996), or produces cognitive interference (e.g., confusing one’s response with the correct one; Kulhavy, 1977).”
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“Generally understood as the procedure used to tell a learner if a response or expression of current understanding is right or wrong (Kulhavy, 1977), the use of feedback as an instructional strategy is widely accepted by both educators and learners and endorsed in multiple theoretical models of…”
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“There it is defined as any communication or procedure that is aimed to inform a learner of the accuracy of a response to an instructional question (Carter, 1984; Cohen, 1985; Kulhavy, 1977; Sales, 1993).”
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“In addition to providing the definition of feedback, Kulhavy (1977) also argued that the quality and effectiveness of feedback is influenced by “presearch availability,” a term that describes availability of the information necessary for the learning to occur.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDevelopment and Validation of Feedback Routines for Instructing Students with Learning Disabilities
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“As a result, subjects could answer the question by looking at the correct answer at the bottom of the screen rather than trying to retrieve it from memory (see Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 2001; Kulhavy, 1977).”
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“effective than no feedback at all (Gilman 1969; Kulhavy 1977; Waldrop et al. 1986; Clariana et al. 1991).”
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Krause, U.-M., & Stark, R. (2010) · Evaluation & Research in Education · doi:10.1080/09500790.2010.519024 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“By highlighting mistakes and offering explanations, elaborated feedback facilitates reflective activities such as validation of self-assessment and correction of mis-conceptions (Krause, 2007; Kulhavy, 1977; see also Kruger & Dunning, 1999).”
BackgroundCognitive Styles and Feedback in Computer-Assisted Instruction
Whyte, M. M., Karolick, D., Nielsen, M., Elder, G. D., & Hawley, W. T. (1995) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/m2av-gehe-cm9g-j9p7 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“There are many common factors, but all design models recommend that some level of practice and feedback be included in the instruction [l, 21.”
BackgroundCOMPUTER‐PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION: THE RELATION OF REQUIRED INTERACTION TO PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Tudor, R. M., & Bostow, D. E. (1991) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.1991.24-361 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Audience response systems: technology to engage learners.
Collins, J. (2008) · Journal of the American College of Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2008.04.008 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Feedback Complexity and Practice: Response Pattern Analysis in Retention and Transfer.
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Understanding Assessment in the Classroom: phases of the assessment process — the assessment episode
Mavrommatis, Y. (1997) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594970040305 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
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“Historically, feedback has generally been understood as the numerous procedures used to tell a learner if a response is correct or incorrect (Kulhavy, 1977).”
BackgroundUsing reflection triggers while learning in an online course
Verpoorten, D., Westera, W., & Specht, M. M. (2011) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01257.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
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A Model of Poor Readers' Text-Based Inferencing: Effects of Explanatory Feedback.
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Personalised computerised feedback in e-mental health
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Chase, J. A., & Houmanfar, R. A. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-009-9089-2 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Previous literature has supported the efficacy of providing feedback to improve performance (e.g., Alvero et al. 2001; Balcazar et al. 1985; Bangert-Drowns et al. 1991; Kulhavy 1977; Peeck et al. 1985; Vollmeyer and Rheinberg 2005) as well as PSI-type courses with respect to student performance (e.g., Austin 2000; Bus…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGreen, L. (1990) · The Journal of Negro Education · doi:10.2307/2295567 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kulhavy, R. W.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kulhavy, Raymond W.
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1977-06
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 211-232
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2158692302
- Cited by
- 571
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 89.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- feedback, written instructions, instructional materials development, student performance, memory retention, learning facilitation, feedback mechanisms, instructional communication
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