Effects of Feedback in a Computer-Based Learning Environment on Students’ Learning Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
In this meta-analysis, we investigated the effects of methods for providing item-based feedback in a computer-based environment on students’ learning outcomes. From 40 studies, 70 effect sizes were computed, which ranged from −0.78 to 2.29. A mixed model was used for the data analysis. The results show that elaborated feedback (EF; e.g., providing an explanation) produced larger effect sizes (0.49) than feedback regarding the correctness of the answer (KR; 0.05) or providing the correct answer (KCR; 0.32). EF was particularly more effective than KR and KCR for higher order learning outcomes. Effect sizes were positively affected by EF feedback, and larger effect sizes were found for mathematics compared with social sciences, science, and languages. Effect sizes were negatively affected by delayed feedback timing and by primary and high school. Although the results suggested that immediate feedback was more effective for lower order learning than delayed feedback and vice versa, no significant interaction was found.
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There is robust evidence that elaborate feedback with correct answers facilitates learning.
“On the one hand, there is robust evidence that elaborate feedback with correct answers facilitates learning (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2020).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
Non-layered feedback can be effective without layering.
“However, non-layered feedback can be effective without layering (e.g., (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2020)).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
A particularly effective form of feedback provides the correct answer with an explanation of why it is correct.
“A particularly effective form of feedback provides the correct answer with an explanation of why it is the correct answer (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Butler et al., 2013; Wisniewski et al., 2020).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
Elaborated feedback produces a substantially larger mean effect size than feedback limited to correctness judgments or feedback providing only the correct answer.
“These conclusions are further supported by meta-analytic evidence: a synthesis of 40 studies comprising 70 effect sizes revealed that elaborated feedback (e.g., providing explanations) produced a substantially larger mean effect size than feedback limited to correctness judgments or feedback providing only the correct answer (Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
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Kraiger, K., & Ford, J. K. (2020) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-060109 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Elaborated feedback and learning: Examining cognitive and motivational influences
Wang, Z., Gong, S.-Y., Xu, S., & Hu, X.-E. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.04.003 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Chen, X., Breslow, L., & DeBoer, J. J. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.09.013 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Lechermeier, J., & Faßnacht, M. (2018) · Management Review Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11301-018-0136-8 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Defining a New 21st Century Skill-Computational Thinking: Concepts and Trends
Haseski, H. I., Ilic, U., & Tugtekin, U. (2018) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v11n4p29 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“One of the limitations in literature review is the inability to cover the whole literature (Van der Kleij, Feskens, & Eggen, 2015).”
BackgroundTheobald, M., & Bellhäuser, H. (2022) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2022.100872 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
A model for aligning assessment with competences and learning activities in online courses
Guerrero‐Roldán, A., & Noguera, I. (2018) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2018.04.005 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Bonneton-Botté, N., Fleury, S., Girard, N., Magadou, M. L., Cherbonnier, A., Renault, M., Anquetil, É., & Jamet, É. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103831 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“In the field of educational research, assistive technologies and software have been designed to teach specific aspects of literacy and to facilitate the teaching-learning process through one-to-one instruction (Chickering & Ehrmann, 1996; Van Der Kleij, Feskens, & Eggen, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRoss, B., Chase, A., Robbie, D., Oates, G., & Absalom, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-018-0113-2 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“The simple correct/incorrect feedback that was provided in this project has been found to be effective for lower-order learning outcomes (Van der Kleij et al., 2015), which was the focus of these adaptive quizzes.”
BackgroundUtilizing Multimodal Data Through fsQCA to Explain Engagement in Adaptive Learning
Papamitsiou, Z. K., Pappas, I. O., Sharma, K., & Giannakos, M. N. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2020.3020499 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Adaptation has a positive impact on learners’ selfregulation and engagement with the activities [19], [20], which is also reflected on learners’ performance [14], [90].”
BackgroundMunshi, A., Biswas, G., Baker, R., Ocumpaugh, J., Hutt, S., & Paquette, L. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12761 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Is GPT-4 a reliable rater? Evaluating consistency in GPT-4's text ratings
Hackl, V., Müller, A. E., Granitzer, M., & Sailer, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1272229 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Hao, Q., Smith, D. H., Ding, L., Ko, A. J., Ottaway, C., Wilson, J., Arakawa, K., Turcan, A., Poehlman, T., & Greer, T. (2021) · Computer Science Education · doi:10.1080/08993408.2020.1860408 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Feedback, as a powerful educational intervention, has been studied extensively in the last three decades (Hattie & Gan, 2011; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSee, B. H., Gorard, S. A. C., Lu, B., Dong, L., & Siddiqui, N. (2021) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2021.1907778 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Feng, Z., González, V. A., Mutch, C., Amor, R., & Cabrera‐Guerrero, G. (2020) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12507 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Sortwell, A., Trimble, K., Ferraz, R. M. P., Geelan, D., Hine, G., Ramírez‐Campillo, R., Carter-Thuillier, B. I., Gkintoni, E., & Xuan, Q. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16177826 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
New Directions in Formative Feedback in Interactive Learning Environments
Goldin, I. M., Narciss, S., Foltz, P. W., & Bauer, M. I. (2017) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-016-0135-7 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“…there is a very large body of feedback research, the findings with regard to the different issues related to feedback design are very complex and often mixed (for further details see the reviews and meta-analyses of e.g., Narciss 2008; 2013; 2016; Shute 2008; Evans 2013; Van der Kleij et al. 2015).”
BackgroundLeeuwenkamp, K. J. G.-V., Brinke, D. J.-T., & Kester, L. (2019) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2019.07.005 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Salih, S., Husain, O., Hamdan, M., Abdelsalam, S., Elshafie, H., & Motwakel, A. (2025) · Results in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103837 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Lui, A. M., & Andrade, H. L. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.751548 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Can an online educational game contribute to developing information literate citizens?
Yang, S., Lee, J. W., Kim, H.-J., Kang, M., Chong, E., & Kim, E.-M. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104057 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Structural validity and invariance of the Feedback Perceptions Questionnaire
Strijbos, J.-W., Pat‐El, R., & Narciss, S. (2021) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.100980 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Lee, J., & Recker, M. M. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104084 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Cai, Z., Gui, Y., Mao, P., Wang, Z., Hao, X., Fan, X., & Tai, R. H. (2023) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100521 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Meaningful Learning in Mathematics: A Research Synthesis of Teaching Approaches
Koskinen, R., & Pitkäniemi, H. (2022) · International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education · doi:10.29333/iejme/11715 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“…may take the form of directive instructional talk, leading questioning and giving feedback, guiding questions tied to activities and tasks, and computer-aided programs (Chadli et al., 2018; Fuchs et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2014; van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wakefield et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialAwidi, I. T. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100226 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Toward AI grading of student problem solutions in introductory physics: A feasibility study
Kortemeyer, G. (2023) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.19.020163 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Valero Haro, A., Noroozi, O., Biemans, H. J. A., & Mulder, M. (2019) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2018.1472132 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“…restructure their knowledge conceptions (Winne and Butler 1994; 5740), and to identify and rectify mistakes and misconceptions (Shute 2008; Van der Kleij, Feskens, and Eggen 2015), to comprehend the differences between the actual and the desired state, and to receive advice on what to do and how…”
BackgroundVoss, T., & Wittwer, J. (2020) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-020-00088-2 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Yan, Z., King, R. B., & Haw, J. Y. (2021) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2021.1988510 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…relations (sharing learning progressions and reading achievement in the East; providing feedback and reading achievement in the West) reiterate that sharing learning progressions or providing feedback alone might not guarantee greater achievement (Shute, 2008; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSupporting learning from text: A meta-analysis on the timing and content of effective feedback
Swart, E. K., Nielen, T. M. J., & Sikkema - de Jong, M. T. (2019) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100296 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…positive effect of EF on learning from text is in line with the results of previous meta-analyses showing that elaborated feedback is particularly effective for promoting higher order learning tasks and deep learning (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Jaehnig & Miller, 2007; van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialInnovative music education: Using an AI-based flipped classroom
Lv, H. Z. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11835-0 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“The findings of a meta-analysis by scientists from the Cito Institute for Educational Measurement and the University of Twente confirmed this assumption, i.e., providing high-level feedback led to better student learning outcomes than the simple one (Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundTimmers, C. F., Walraven, A., & Veldkamp, B. P. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.03.012 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The effect of personalized feedback on listening and reading skills in the learning of EFL
Pérez-Segura, J. J., Ruiz, R. S., González‐Calero, J. A., & Gutiérrez, R. C. (2020) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2019.1705354 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Student Interaction with NewtBot: An LLM-as-tutor Chatbot for Secondary Physics Education
Lieb, A., & Goel, T. (2024) · CHI Extended Abstracts · doi:10.1145/3613905.3647957 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Petrović, J., Pale, P., & Jeren, B. (2017) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-016-9571-0 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…published study so far has investigated the effects of formative feedback in online assessments in the domain of electrical engineering, and no study from this domain was included in a recent meta-analysis on the effects of formative feedback in computer-based environments (der Kleij et al. 2015).”
BackgroundResultKim, N. J., Belland, B. R., Lefler, M., Andreasen, L., Walker, A. E., & Axelrod, D. B. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09502-3 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Still, there is less clarity about how the contexts in which scaffolding is used influences scaffolding ’ s effectiveness (Van der Kleij et al. 2015; VanLehn 2011).”
BackgroundEffects of performance feedback valence on perceptions of invested mental effort
Raaijmakers, S. F., Baars, M., Schaap, L., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Gog, T. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.12.002 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The impact of elaborated feedback on text comprehension within a computer-based assessment
Golke, S., Dörfler, T., & Artelt, C. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.05.009 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The Future of Adaptive Learning: Does the Crowd Hold the Key?
Heffernan, N. T., Ostrow, K., Kim, K. N., Selent, D., Inwegen, E. G. V., Xiong, X., & Williams, J. J. (2016) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-016-0094-z · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“…within computer-based learning environments recently suggested that elaborated feedback, or that providing a student with information beyond the accuracy of his or her response, is considerably helpful for student learning, reporting overall effect sizes of 0.49 (Van der Kleij et al. 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialPrevention–Permission–Promotion: A Review of Approaches to Errors in Learning
Wong, S. S. H., & Lim, S. W. H. (2018) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2018.1501693 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
A Qualitative Analysis of Implementing E-Learning during the COVID-19 Lockdown
Lozano, C. P., Bergés, M. S., Gil, M. L., & Bustamante, J. C. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13063317 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“In fact, [78,81] showed that feedback that explained why an answer is correct or incorrect had more positive effects on learning.”
BackgroundKuklick, L., Greiff, S., & Lindner, M. A. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104785 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
A systematic review of AI-based feedback in educational settings
Durak, H. Y., & Onan, A. (2025) · Journal of Computational Social Science · doi:10.1007/s42001-025-00428-1 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Using video technology to enable student voice in assessment feedback
der Kleij, F. M. V., Adie, L. E., & Cumming, J. (2016) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12536 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Mikula, B. D., & Heckler, A. F. (2017) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.13.010122 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Furthermore, computer-based training with feedback has proven to be effective in a wide range of topics [29,30], allowing for an array of feedback formats, providing individualized feedback to each student.”
BackgroundAssessing the use of computer-based assessment-feedback in teaching digital accountants
Helfaya, A. (2018) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2018.1501716 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Accordingly, the importance of assessment and feedback in the T&L process in HE is widely acknowledged especially with the growing popularity of the e-Assessment-Feed-back for learning approaches in the digital age (Al-Htaybat et al., 2018; Mihret et al., 2017; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialFormative feedback and scaffolding for developing complex problem solving and modelling outcomes
Frank, B. M., Simper, N., & Kaupp, J. (2017) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2017.1299692 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Fong, C. J., Williams, K. M., Williamson, Z. H., Lin, S., Kim, Y. W., & Schallert, D. L. (2017) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-017-9658-y · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Berndt, M., Strijbos, J.-W., & Fischer, F. (2017) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-017-0343-z · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“…(e.g., information about mistakes or on how to proceed), has a more positive effect on performance compared to feedback providing merely an evaluation or rather general comments (e.g., information about results) (Hattie and Timperley 2007; Narciss 2008; Shute 2008; Van der Kleij et al. 2015).”
BackgroundChildren and Online Privacy Protection: Empowerment from Cognitive Defense Strategies
Andrews, J. C., Walker, K., & Kees, J. (2019) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1177/0743915619883638 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Researchers have found such feedback to be more effective on learning outcomes than simple statements of whether the answer was correct (Van der Kleij, Feskens, and Eggen 2015).”
BackgroundHan, J., Batterham, P. J., Calear, A. L., Wu, Y., Xue, J., & van Spijker, B. A. J. (2018) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2017.11.002 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Xie, C., Cheung, A., Lau, W. W. F., & Slavin, R. E. (2020) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101565 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
AI-Enabled Assessment and Feedback Mechanisms for Language Learning
Yeşilyurt, Y. E. (2023) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-9893-4.ch002 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Effects of Feedback on Self‐Evaluations and Self‐Regulation in Elementary School
van Loon, M. H., & Roebers, C. M. (2017) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3347 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“That is, feedback should address performance on individual items and precisely elaborate on reasons why performance is correct or incorrect, rather than just addressing correctness (Miller & Geraci, 2011; Nietfeld, Cao, & Osborne, 2006; Renner & Renner, 2001; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundPark, S., & Beretvas, S. N. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1156-y · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Lim, L.-A., Gasevic, D., Matcha, W., Ahmad Uzir, N., & Dawson, S. (2021) · LAK21: 11th International Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference · doi:10.1145/3448139.3448174 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“flect on their current use of tactics and strategies, and adapt their self-regulation in more optimal ways [32].”
BackgroundAdmiraal, W., Vermeulen, J., & Bulterman-Bos, J. A. (2020) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2020.1825992 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“In a meta-analysis of item-based feedback in computer-based environments, Van der Kleij et al. (2015) examined the findings of 40 studies.”
BackgroundBeckker, K. D., Witte, K. D., & Campenhout, G. V. (2021) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2021.06.022 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Beauchemin, N., Charland, P., Karran, A. J., Boasen, J., Tadson, B., Sénécal, S., & Léger, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1416683 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Affective Computing for Learning in Education: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis
Yuvaraj, R., Mittal, R., Prince, A. A., & Huang, J. S. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15010065 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Rasi, P., & Vuojärvi, H. (2017) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12587 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Summative and Formative Feedback
Brookhart, S. M. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316832134.005 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The impact of virtual technology on students’ creativity: A meta-analysis
Wang, Y., Liu, W., Yu, X., Li, B., & Wang, Q. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105044 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Faber, J. M., & Visscher, A. J. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.03.008 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“More complex tasks are those requiring elaborated feedback (Van der Kleij et al., 2015), a finding confirmed by studies on the effectiveness of DFATs on algebra (Bokhove & Drijvers, 2012) and general mathematics achievement (Wang, 2011).”
ResultEvaluating ChatGPT’s Decimal Skills and Feedback Generation in a Digital Learning Game
Nguyen, H. A., Stec, H., Hou, X., Di, S., & McLaren, B. M. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-42682-7_19 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
- Authors
- Van der Kleij, F. M., Feskens, R. C. W., & Eggen, T. J. H. M.
- Affiliations
- Cito Institute for Educational Measurement and University of Twente
- Cito Institute for Educational Measurement
- University of Twente (NL)
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2015-12
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 475-511
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2110661236
- Cited by
- 714
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 71 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 4 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 155.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- elaborated feedback, computer-assisted instruction, learning outcomes, feedback timing, immediate feedback, delayed feedback, higher-order learning, mathematics learning
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