A Review of School Climate Research

Thapa, Amrit; Cohen, Jonathan; Guffey, Shawn; Higgins-D’Alessandro, Ann

doi:10.3102/0034654313483907

Cited by 2,335Educational Environments and Student OutcomesSchool Health and Nursing EducationEarly Childhood Education and Development

A Review of School Climate Research

Thapa, Amrit, Cohen, Jonathan, Guffey, Shawn, Higgins-D’Alessandro, Ann·2013·Review of Educational Research

DOI 10.3102/0034654313483907

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Abstract

For more than a century, there has been a growing interest in school climate. Recently, the U.S. Department of Education, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Institute for Educational Sciences, a growing number of State Departments of Education, foreign educational ministries, and UNICEF have focused on school climate reform as an evidence-based school improvement strategy that supports students, parents/guardians, and school personnel learning and working together to create ever safer, more supportive and engaging K–12 schools. This work presents an integrative review on school climate research. The 206 citations used in this review include experimental studies, correlational studies, literature reviews, and other descriptive studies. The review focuses on five essential dimensions of school climate: Safety, Relationships, Teaching and Learning, Institutional Environment, and the School Improvement Process. We conclude with a critique of the field and a series of recommendations for school climate researchers and policymakers.

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At-risk pupils often experience strained relationships with teachers, low school connectedness and a history of negative educational experiences.
“These pupils often experience strained relationships with teachers, low school connectedness and a history of negative educational experiences (Kearney & Graczyk, 2020; Thapa et al., 2013).”
From Beyond the Classroom: Strengthening Pupil Engagement, Attendance and Belonging through Alternative Education and Community Partnerships (2025) · cites this paper as Thapa et al., 2013
When school is experienced as unsafe, unsupportive, or irrelevant, avoidance and disruptive behaviour are more likely to emerge.
“When school is experienced as unsafe, unsupportive, or irrelevant, avoidance and disruptive behaviour are more likely to emerge (Sammons et al., 2016; Thapa et al., 2013).”
From Beyond the Classroom: Strengthening Pupil Engagement, Attendance and Belonging through Alternative Education and Community Partnerships (2025) · cites this paper as Thapa et al., 2013
School climate is associated with increased self-esteem, lower drug use, fewer self-reports of psychiatric problems, better psychological well-being, decreased student absenteeism, lower rates of student suspension, and effective risk prevention.
“Association between school climate and increased self-esteem, lower levels of drug use, fewer self-reports of psychiatric problems, better psychological well-being, decreased student absenteeism, lower rates of student suspension, and effective risk prevention.”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
Reduced aggression and violence, peer victimization, and punitive disciplinary actions are associated with decreased absenteeism and increased academic achievement.
“which has also been associated with decreased absenteeism and increased academic achievement.78,79”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
Being a victim of bullying is associated with feeling unsafe at school, lower connectedness with school, and lower grades.
“being a victim of bullying is associated with feeling unsafe at school, lower connectedness with school, and lower grades.79”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]

A positive and safe school climate is associated with reduced aggression and violence, peer victimization, and punitive disciplinary actions.
“a positive and safe school climate is associated with reduced aggression and violence, peer victimization, and punitive disciplinary actions”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
Students who are more attached to school have better attendance, grades, and classroom behavior.
“Students who are more attached to school have been shown to have better attendance, grades, and classroom behavior.79”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
A positive and safe school climate is associated with increased attachment to school.
“A positive and safe school climate has been shown to be associated with increased attachment to school.77–79”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
Student-teacher relationships influence academic success and behavioral outcomes for students.
“Student-teacher relationships influence academic success and behavioral outcomes for students.77–79”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
Cooperative learning, group cohesion, respect, and mutual trust directly improve the learning environment and more distally the school climate.
“Cooperative learning, group cohesion, respect, and mutual trust have been shown to directly improve the learning environment and more distally the school climate.77–79”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
School connectedness is a strong protective factor in decreasing risky health behaviors such as substance use, early sexual initiation, violence, and risk of unintentional injury.
“School connectedness has been shown to be a strong protective factor in decreasing risky health behaviors such as substance use, early sexual initiation, violence, and risk of unintentional injury (eg, drinking and driving).79–81”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
School connectedness is associated with academic achievement, including school attendance, staying in school longer, and higher grades and classroom test scores.
“Research has demonstrated an association between school connectedness and academic achievement, including school attendance, staying in school longer, and higher grades and classroom test scores.79,80”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
School climate is directly related to academic achievement for elementary school, middle school, and high school.
“school climate is directly related to academic achievement for elementary school, middle school, and high school.79”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
Addressing physical threats such as crime, violence, and injuries that make students feel safe is associated with decreased absenteeism and increased academic achievement.
“addressing physical threats (eg, crime, violence, and injuries) that make students feel safe, which in turn has been shown to be associated with decreased absenteeism and increased academic achievement.53,79,91”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]
Student learning opportunities beyond the classroom such as service-learning opportunities and civic engagement have been associated with improved school-related behaviors, decreased school suspension rates, and increased academic achievement.
“In addition, student learning opportunities beyond the classroom such as service-learning opportunities and civic engagement have been associated with improved school-related behaviors, decreased school suspension rates, and increased academic achievement.79,99”
From Critical connections: health and academics (2015) · cites this paper as [79]

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School Climate: a Review of the Construct, Measurement, and Impact on Student Outcomes
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Authors: Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A.
Affiliations: National School Climate Center
Fordham University (US)
Fordham University
ORCID: Cohen, Jonathan
Venue: Review of Educational Research
Publisher: American Educational Research Association (AERA)
Published: 2013-09
Volume: 83
Issue: 3
Pages: 357-385
ISSN: 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
1935-1046
DOI: 10.3102/0034654313483907
OpenAlex: W2103901158
Semantic Scholar: efd067a6710a4d6c6f0355fbf8d1aef8783333be
Cited by: 2,335
References: 196
Citations by year: 2026: 203 · 2025: 237 · 2024: 211 · 2023: 236 · 2022: 231 · 2021: 221 · 2020: 225 · 2019: 174 · 2018: 207 · 2017: 143 · 2016: 114 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 6
FWCI: 395.08
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
Funders: U.S. Department of Education
University of Wisconsin-Madison
University of Chicago
Wisconsin Center for Education Research, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Educational Environments and Student Outcomes
Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › School Health and Nursing Education
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: school climate, school safety, teacher-student relationship, teaching-learning process, institutional environment, school improvement, K-12 schools

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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A Review of School Climate Research

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Integrity signals

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