Linking getting to school with going to school
Abstract
Researchers, policymakers, and practitioners have recently aligned efforts to reduce school absenteeism, particularly during kindergarten when excessive absences are highest out of all elementary grades. Little is known, however, about whether the way in which students get to school might influence if they go to school. To address this gap, this study was the first to address the role of school bus-taking on reducing school absences. Using a national large-scale dataset of children (the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011), the findings suggest that children who took the school bus to kindergarten had fewer absent days over the school year and were less likely to be chronically absent compared with children who commuted to school in any other way. Given that many districts are considering cutting or restricting bus services, this study brings to question whether doing so might limit the resources upon which families rely to ensure their children attend school each day. Implications are discussed.
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The concept of truancy tends to be associated with lower socioeconomic youth who experience barriers to attending school such as domestic and neighborhood violence, unstable housing, lack of school supplies, housing and transportation problems, and safety concerns.
“The concept of truancy also tends to be associated with lower socioeconomic youth who experience barriers to attending school such as domestic and neighborhood violence, unstable housing conditions, lack of school supplies, housing and transportation problems, and safety concerns coming to school”
From Reconciling Contemporary Approaches to School Attendance and School Absenteeism: Toward Promotion and Nimble Response, Global Policy Review and Implementation, and Future Adaptability (Part 1) (2019) · cites this paper as Gottfried, 2017
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The short- and long-run impacts of secondary school absences
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“…with lower socioeconomic youth who experience barriers to attending school such as domestic and neighborhood violence, unstable housing conditions, lack of school supplies, housing and transportation problems, and safety concerns coming to school (Flaherty et al., 2012; Gottfried, 2017).”
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“Exosystem factors such as a parent’s employment (Ingul et al., 2012), school start times (Bowers and Moyer, 2017; McKeever and Clark, 2017), and transport options (Gottfried, 2017) might also exert an influence on proximal processes.”
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“In highpoverty neighborhoods with high crime rates, safety concerns may further discourage students from commuting to school when safe transit options are unavailable (Gottfried, 2017; Hamlin, 2019).”
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“More recently, Gottfried (2017) examined the association between transit mode and school attendance among kindergarteners and found that students who took a school bus were less likely to miss school than children who took other modes of transit (predominately private car).”
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“…school-based efforts with coordinated strategies for addressing social and economic inequality, including safe and reliable school transportation (Gottfried, 2017), stable and affordable housing (Erb-Downward & Watt, 2018; Evangelist & Shaefer, 2020), and more effective poverty reduction and…”
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“In related fashion, marginalized children who do not take a bus to school, or who must walk longer distances to school, are at greater risk of absenteeism (Gottfried, 2017).”
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“Yet, two studies found that rural kindergarten students who took the bus to school had fewer absences than their peers who took other modes of transportation or those from urban and suburban areas (Gottfried, 2017; Gottfried et al., 2021).”
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“Among elementary grades, absenteeism is highest in kindergarten (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2012; Gottfried, 2017) and the prevalence is greater in low-income or urban schools (Chang & Romero, 2008).”
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“Students with stronger school attendance (Gottfried, 2017) and more positive academic beliefs (Yeager & Walton, 2011) tend to demonstrate better academic performance.”
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“Others have examined the presence or rollout of school programs (Gottfried, 2015, 2017a; Gottfried & Hutt, 2019), mentoring (Childs & Grooms, 2018), peer consistency (Kirksey & Gottfried, 2018), therapy (Gandy & Schultz, 2007), and transportation (Gottfried, 2017c).”
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“Furthermore, riding the school bus in kindergarten is associated with increased attendance, especially for students living in rural communities (Gottfried 2017; Gottfried, Ozuna, and Kirksey 2021).”
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“Other research has suggested that school buses (Gottfried, 2017), school-based health”
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“Consistent with this, Cordes et al. (2019) and Gottfried (2017) report that students taking the bus have lower absenteeism.1 That said, none of these papers examine the length of the bus ride or how students with long bus rides perform relative to other bus riders with shorter commutes.”
MethodInfluentialExploring school bus ridership and absenteeism in rural communities
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Self-citationThe Signaling Power of Unexcused Absence from School
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“Even if parents are aware and connected, they may still face other barriers, such as interfering work schedules and transportation challenges, which lead them to keep their children out of school (Gottfried, 2017; Hancock et al., 2018).”
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“For example, a few studies have shown that schools’ communication with parents and provision of health services and transportation are linked with better school attendance (Allen, 2003; Chang & Romero, 2008; Epstein & Sheldon, 2002; Gottfried, 2013, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA Two-Generation Education Intervention and Children’s Attendance in Head Start
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“Structural barriers such as the distance from a family ’ s home to Head Start may also in fl uence children ’ s school attendance (Gottfried, 2017; Romero & Lee, 2008; Susman-Stillman, Englund, Storm, & Bailey, 2018).”
School Transit and Accessing Public School in Detroit
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“One such study, Gottfried (2017), utilized the ECLS-K:2011 dataset to find that kindergarteners who rode the school bus were less likely to be chronically absent than students who used alternative modes of transit.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSpatial Mismatch and the Share of Black, Hispanic, and White Students Enrolled in Charter Schools
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“Longer commutes are also associated with higher absenteeism (Blagg, Rosenboom, and Chingos 2018; Cordes, Rick, and Schwartz 2021; Gottfried 2017; Stein and Grigg 2019) and an increased likelihood of switching schools, which can adversely affect test scores, discipline, and dropout (Blagg et al.…”
BackgroundDo Teachers Perceive Absent Students Differently?
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“School programs that have been associated with less absenteeism included mentoring, transportation, meals, and texting (Childs & Grooms, 2018; Gottfried, 2017; Kirksey & Gottfried, 2021; Page & Smythe-Leistico, 2019).”
Self-citationWhy are children absent from preschool? A nationally representative analysis of Head Start programs
Purtell, K. M., & Ansari, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.1031379 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…and Purtell, 2018; Ehrlich et al., 2018; Fuhs et al., 2018; Rhoad-Drogalis and Justice, 2018); and (b) the more often children are absent in the early years, the more likely they were to be absent later on (Connolly and Olson, 2012; Dubay and Hollar, 2016; Gottfried, 2017; Ansari and Pianta, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialTransportation Logics: How Charter School Leaders Make Choices about Student Transportation
Hashim, A. K., & Sattin-Bajaj, C. (2023) · American Journal of Education · doi:10.1086/725549 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…to the importance of transportation and its relationship to AUGUST 2023 515 families’ school-choice participation (Edwards 2021; Jochim et al. 2014; Teske et al. 2009), school transfer rates (Stein et al. 2021), attendance (Edwards 2022; Gottfried 2017), and student achievement (Edwards 2022).”
BackgroundKirksey, J. J., & Elefante, J. (2022) · Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR) · doi:10.1080/10824669.2022.2102982 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“For example, fairly robust research notes the importance of reliable school transportation in ensuring students can get to school (Cordes & Schwartz, 2019; Gottfried, 2017; Gottfried, Ozuna, & Kirksey, 2021).”
BackgroundDo teachers' instructional practices change when more students are absent?
Gottfried, M. A., & Ansari, A. (2019) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2019.102888 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationDo slum upgrading programs impact school attendance?
Zanoni, W., Acevedo, P., & Guerrero, D. A. (2023) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2023.102458 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Who’s really driving student outcomes?
Meals, A. R. (2018) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/0031721718767857 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
An Exploratory Analysis of the Prevalence of Quantitative Research Concepts in Journal Articles
Hochbein, C. D., & Smeaton, K. S. (2018) · International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership · doi:10.22230/ijepl.2018v13n11a765 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Student Transportation in Choice-Rich Districts: Implementation Challenges and Responses
Sattin-Bajaj, C. (2022) · Education Finance and Policy · doi:10.1162/edfp_a_00377 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Is There a Catholic School Effect on Kindergarteners’ Absenteeism?
Kirksey, J. J., & Gottfried, M. A. (2021) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2021.1898707 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…data, the lower end of this range is over twice the size of the association between school bus taking and attendance using propensity score models (Gottfried, 2017), larger than the estimated teacher effect on student absenteeism (Gershenson, 2016), and similar to the association between a school…”
ResultSelf-citationRiding the Yellow School Bus: Equity in bus transportation across districts, schools, and students
WEINSTEIN, M. G., Cordes, S. A., Rick, C., & Schwartz, A. E. (2022) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/00420859221114084 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…buses improve attendance and enable students to attend schools farther from home – which may be higher quality, more integrated, or better suited to the student ’ s needs – regardless of neighborhood school quality (Blagg et al., 2018; Cordes et al., 2019; Cordes & Schwartz, 2019; Gottfried, 2017).”
InfluentialPreis, D. (2022) · Race Ethnicity and Education · doi:10.1080/13613324.2022.2069740 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…transportation can potentially support –or obstruct – the development of both the academic mindset and social capital depending on its quality and accessibility; research associates transportation inaccessibility with absenteeism and lower achievement (Gottfried 2017; Chingos and Blagg 2017).”
InfluentialThe many costs of operating school buses in America
Ellegood, W. A., Riley, J. M., & Berg, M. D. (2023) · Research in Transportation Economics · doi:10.1016/j.retrec.2023.101401 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Exploring the Links Between Student and Classmate Chronic Absenteeism
Gottfried, M. A., Kirksey, J. J., & Ozuna, C. S. (2020) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146812012201205 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This is not surprising and corresponds to prior research (Gottfried, 2017a; Gottfried & Kirksey, 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationPushed Out for Missing School: The Role of Social Disparities and School Truancy in Dropping OutPreprint
Mireles‐Rios, R., Rios, V. M., & Reyes, A. H. (2020) · CrimRxiv · doi:10.21428/cb6ab371.9475a729 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
School Closures and the Spatial Ecology of Education Access in 10 U.S. Cities
Brazil, N. (2024) · Geographical Analysis · doi:10.1111/gean.12414 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Narea, M., Soto‐Ramírez, P., & Abufhele, A. (2025) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14238 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Creating Welcoming Schools: The Role of Positive Climates in Reducing Absenteeism
Graham, J., Chiang, Y.-C., & Choi, S. Y. (2026) · The American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312261417687 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…are essential to substantially reduce absenteeism, these approaches face significant challenges: they tend to be costly (Cordes et al., 2022; M. A. Gottfried, 2017), are vulnerable to political fluctuations that can impede implementation (Milner, 2015; Noguera & Wells, 2011), and often center…”
InfluentialDeterminants of school bus service satisfaction in private schools in Ghana: Managerial implications
Agyeman, S., Alimo, P. K., & Agen-Davis, L. (2023) · African Transport Studies · doi:10.1016/j.aftran.2024.100002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
School breakfast and young children’s absenteeism: Does meal location matter?
Gottfried, M. A., & Kirksey, J. J. (2022) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106676 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationSperoni, S. (2023) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.1177/03611981231164388 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Of further importance, school bus use has been shown to be associated with lower rates of chronic absenteeism for all students ( 41 ), which is a critical part of reducing levels of educational inequality and the Black–White achievement gap ( 26 ).”
BackgroundKlein, M., Sosu, E., & Dare, S. (2020) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/9jrqx · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gottfried, M. A., & Kirksey, J. J. (2021) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/00144029211062590 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For example, highly involved parents might be sending their children to full-day kindergarten and may ensure their children would be at school each day (Cannon et al., 2006; Gottfried, 2017a).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe Impacts of Fare-Free Bus Programs on Educational Outcomes of K–12 Students
Munoz, E. G., & Sandoval, H. H. (2022) · Journal of Human Capital · doi:10.1086/721376 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
How Can Preservice Teaching Programs Help New Teachers Feel Prepared to Address Absenteeism?
Gottfried, M. A., Kirksey, J. J., & Hutt, E. L. (2020) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146812012200507 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…(Robinson, Lee, Dearing, & Rogers, 2017; Rogers & Feller, 2018; Smythe-Leistico & Page, 2018), going to full-day kindergarten (Gottfried, 2017a), mentoring (Childs & Grooms, 2018), participating in school breakfasts (Wass, McGuire, & Gallagher, 2015), and transportation (Gottfried, 2017b).”
Self-citationKirksey, J. J., & Elefante, J. (2021) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/kpydj · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The longer the daily commute to school, the lower the student attendance: evidence from Brazil
da Silva, R. L. P., Silveira Neto, R., & da Silva, D. F. C. (2025) · The Annals of Regional Science · doi:10.1007/s00168-025-01410-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The most evident benefits of increased school attendance are related to cognitive and academic skill development (Klein et al. 2022; Ansari and Pianta 2019; Gottfried 2017).”
Wei, W. S. (2024) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2024.02.003 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Running Late: Student Commutes and High School Tardiness in Baltimore City
Burdick–Will, J., & Stein, M. L. (2024) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x241256963 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…barriers focuses specifically on the relationship between transportation and absenteeism and other school withdrawal behaviors (Blagg et al., 2018; Burdick-Will et al., 2019; Cordes et al., 2022; Edwards, 2024; Gottfried, 2017; Gottfried et al., 2021; Stein et al., 2021; Stein & Grigg, 2019).”
Absenteeism and Achievement in Early Elementary Grades: A Multilevel Organizational Analysis
May, H., Bailes, L. P., & Riser, D. M. (2024) · Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR) · doi:10.1080/10824669.2024.2413483 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Descriptive studies of absence abound, and these contribute the host of data which indicate how, when, and why students miss school (Gottfried, 2017; Moonie et al., 2006).”
Quiñonez, L. D. C. L., Martini, L. C., Mendes, L. D. S., Pires, F. M., & Betancourt, C. C. (2025) · IoT · doi:10.3390/iot6030055 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Reliable transportation has been shown to be essential for regular school attendance, with limited access associated with increased absenteeism, particularly among younger students [8].”
Every step I take: How diverse travel purposes shape social exclusion
Liu, Q., Liu, J., & Jiang, S. (2026) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2026.104897 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
School-Bus Taking for Students with Disabilities: Who’s On-Board?
Gottfried, M. A., Ozuna, C. S., & Lloydhauser, M. (2021) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/08959048211049416 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“And yet, given its ubiquitous nature and historical roots in U.S. education, it is surprising that so little research focuses on school transportation and its link to students’ actually getting to school more frequently (Gottfried, 2017; Stein & Grigg, 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationNovice Teachers and Student Attendance in Early Elementary School
Gottfried, M., Little, M. H., & Ansari, A. (2024) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/08959048241231952 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…of chronic absenteeism than their more experienced counterparts in early elementary years, this may not be sufficient to help curtail gaps in absenteeism in the early years of school among vulnerable populations (e.g., Gottfried et al., 2017; Morrissey et al., 2014; Van Eck et al., 2017).”
Self-citationExposure to drug trafficking and school truancy: Empirical evidence from Costa Rica
Barrado, B., Gutiérrez, M. F., & Giménez, G. (2024) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2024.106741 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gottfried, M. A., Kirksey, J. J., & Hutt, E. L. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105618
Self-citationStudies of Ethnic and Racial Disparities in Labor and Educational Outcomes
Alemu, B. (2020) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Lee, G. (2021) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Do Slum Upgrading Programs Impact School Attendance?
Zanoni, W., Acevedo, P., & Guerrero, D. (2021) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.18235/0003710
“Enhanced mobility may also lead to the integration of public transportation in the slum, and public transportation access can lower absenteeism (Gottfried, 2017) 8 .”
BackgroundA call to World Governments; Save youth generations from obsoleted education systems
(2021) · American Journal of Educational Research and Reviews · doi:10.28933/ajerr-2021-09-3005
Reframing the US Attendance Crisis: School Absences Send Powerful Signals about Children NationallyPreprint
Pyne, J., & Grodsky, E. (2022) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/rys96
A Call to World Governments: Save Youth Generations from Obsoleted Education Systems!
Mabrouk, D. M. M. (2021) · Global Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.5296/gjes.v7i2.19309
OECD (2019) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/kyd7ca-es
Sistemas escolares reactivos: resultados principales y opciones de política
OECD (2019) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/kkmvqw-es
OECD (2019) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/kc3nfb-fr
OECD (2018) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/9789264306707-1-en
Le financement du système scolaire : principaux résultats et indicateurs
OECD (2019) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/knifc6-fr
OECD (2018) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/9789264306707-9-en
How the School Resources Review was conducted
OECD (2018) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/9789264306707-10-en
Responsive school systems: Main findings and policy pointers
OECD (2018) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/9789264306707-4-en
OECD (2018) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/9789264306707-5-en
Do Long Bus Rides Harm Student Outcomes? Evidence From New York City
Cordes, S. A. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1431743
Beyond Assessment: School Administrator Perspectives on Data for Decision Making
Stewart, M. S. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1439620
Burdick–Will, J. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1437427
Capaldi, M. J. (2023) · Journal of College Student Retention Research Theory & Practice · doi:10.1177/15210251231156421
“Perhaps most relatable to this study, there has been a link found between adequate school bus transportation and improved attendance (Gottfried, 2017; Gottfried et al., 2021).”
Sattin-Bajaj, C., & Hashim, A. K. (2023) · Journal of School Choice · doi:10.1080/15582159.2023.2274821
“Access to student transportation is also associated with lower rates of chronic absenteeism (Burdick-Will et al., 2019; Cordes et al., 2019; Gottfried, 2017; Gottfried et al., 2021) and increased likelihood of attending a higher performing school of choice (Cordes & Schwartz, 2019).”
BackgroundJones, T. M., Lea, C. H., III, López, A. P., Becker, K., & Malorni, A. (2024) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-024-00493-9
“…school climate, lack of language accessibility, student health, community structure, and family structure (Ansari & Pianta, 2019; Bealing, 1990; Chang & Davis, 2015; Got-tfried, 2013, 2014, 2017; Gottfried & Gee, 2017; Kearney and Benoit 2022; Lehr et al., 2004; Ready, 2010; Van Eck et al., 2017).”
Responsive School Systems (Summary in Spanish)
OECD (2019) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/6a9024fe-es
Responsive School Systems (Summary in French)
OECD (2019) · OECD reviews of school resources · doi:10.1787/61f7f035-fr
School Transportation as Social Capital: Suburban School Leaders at the Wheel of Equitable Access
Preis, D. (2024) · Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership · doi:10.1177/15554589241290997
Habib, F. A. B., & Hamid, M. K. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Reform · doi:10.1177/10567879241302832
Kooperation bei Schulabsentismus im Kontext regionaler Disparitäten am Beispiel Sachsens
Popp, K., & Schmalfuß, M. (2025) · Absentismus und Dropout · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-46233-8_16
Why student absences aren’t the real problem in America’s ‘attendance crisis’
Pyne, J., Grodsky, E., & Vaade, E. S. (2021) · doi:10.64628/aai.tmwgr7gyu
Gottfried, M. A., Kim, P., Little, M., Cohen‐Vogel, L., & Peters, S. K. (2025) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-025-02001-x
Self-citationChallenging School Journeys: How Does Bussed Education Contribute to Access to Quality Education?
Doğuş, Y. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18020664
Re-thinking Adequacy: From Educational Minimums to Educational Justice
Saldaña, C., & Wiley, K. E. (2025) · Journal of Education Finance and Law · doi:10.5406/30678560.50.2.05
“…of multiple systems including healthcare (both physical and mental), family support services, early childhood education, transportation, after-school programs, food services, housing, and community development initiatives (Anyon, 2005; Gottfried, 2017; Lenhoff et al., 2022; Welner & LaCour, 2021).”
The Long Road to Opportunity: Transportation Equity in School Choice
Cobb, C. D., Wentzell, C., & Farrell, K. (2026) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584261422255
- Authors
- Gottfried, M. A.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gottfried, Michael A.
- Venue
- Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
- Published
- 2017-04-11
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 571-592
- ISSN
- 0162-3737 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1062
- OpenAlex
- W2607714331
- Semantic Scholar
- ee097ec4898cf6a7fc96fa535696c336d8a7684c
- Cited by
- 104
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 13
- FWCI
- 40.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Stuart Foundation (N/A)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Youth Substance Use and School Attendance
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- school bus transportation, school absenteeism, chronic absenteeism, kindergarten attendance, student commuting, school attendance
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