The DOI matches its Crossref record; 60 of the 60 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Longitudinal Assessment of Neuropsychological Function in Major Depression
Abstract
Neuropsychological impairment is a core component of major depression, yet its relationship to clinical state is unclear. The aims of the present review were to determine which neuropsychological domains and tasks were most sensitive to improvement in clinical state in major depression and to highlight the methodological issues in such research. Studies that included a baseline and at least one follow-up neuropsychological testing session in adults with major depression were identifed using MEDLINE, Web of Science and ScienceDirect databases. Thirty studies were included in the review. Findings in younger adult populations suggested that improvement in mood was most strongly related to improved verbal memory and verbal fluency, while measures of executive functioning and attention tended to remain impaired across treatment. In late-life major depression, improved psychomotor speed was most closely related to treatment response, but there was much inconsistency between study findings, which may be due to methodological issues. In major depression, particular neuropsychological domains are more strongly related to clinical state than others. The findings from the present review suggest that the domains most sensitive to clinical state are verbal learning and memory, verbal fluency and psychomotor speed. In contrast, measures of attention and executive functioning perhaps represent more trait-like markers of major depression. With further methodologically sound research, the changes in neuropsychological function associated with treatment response may provide a means of evaluating different treatment strategies in major depression.
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“Cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder (MDD) encompasses several domains, including but not limited to executive function, verbal memory, and attention.”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Notwithstanding the heterogeneity across individual studies, the most replicated findings indicate that cognitive impairment in MDD encompasses several domains, notably attention, memory, psychomotor speed, and executive function [7–9].”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
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Effortful information processing in patients with major depression — A 10-year follow-up study
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Cognitive performance in unipolar old‐age depression: a longitudinal study
Pantzar, A., Atti, A. R., Fratiglioni, L., Fastbom, J., Bäckman, L., & Laukka, E. J. (2016) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4510 · Cited by 24
A neuropsychological study of older adult first-time sex offenders
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“Although depression is associated with poor neuropsychological function (Maschi, Kwak, Ko, & Morrissey, 2011), particularly in attention (Douglas & Porter, 2009; Shenal, Harrison, & Demaree, 2003), executive function (Cotrena, Branco, Shansis, & Fonseca, 2016; Zakzanis, Leach, & Kaplan, 1999),…”
Systematic review of neurocognition in people with co-occurring alcohol misuse and depression
Hunt, S. A., Kay-Lambkin, F. J., Baker, A. L., & Michie, P. T. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.03.024 · Cited by 22
“Differing patterns of cognitive impairment in the symptomatic and remitted phases are evident in the literature on depression (Douglas and Porter, 2009), and AUD (Stavro et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWoody, M. L., Miskovic, V., Owens, M., James, K. M., Feurer, C., Sosoo, E. E., & Gibb, B. E. (2017) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.12.007 · Cited by 20
“Notably, WM deficits in MDD are not typically resolved with intervention or remission (38), so the identification of cognitive biases linked to WM deficits may provide novel avenues for intervention.”
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“psychomotor speed are also evidenced, though these are more likely the result of reduction of depressive symptoms [29, 30].”
BackgroundSchmid, M. T., & Hammar, Å. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.667238 · Cited by 19
“Importantly, although cognitive improvement parallel to symptom recovery from the depressive episode has been reported (20), several studies find cognitive impairment, and especially EF impairment, to persist despite symptom reduction and remission (9, 18, 21, 22).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialKassel, M. T., Rhodes, E., Insel, P. S., Woodworth, K., Garrison‐Diehn, C., Satre, D. D., Nelson, J. C., Tosun, D., & Mackin, R. S. (2022) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5779 · Cited by 20
Hsu, K. J., Young‐Wolff, K. C., Kendler, K. S., Halberstadt, L. J., & Prescott, C. A. (2013) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.10.037 · Cited by 17
“, 2009) and executive functioning (Douglas and Porter, 2009), and at times verbal fluency (e.”
BackgroundImbalance in subregional connectivity of the right temporoparietal junction in major depression
Poeppl, T. B., Müller, V. I., Hoffstaedter, F., Bzdok, D., Laird, A. R., Fox, P. T., Langguth, B., Rupprecht, R., Sorg, C., Riedl, V., et al. (2016) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23217 · Cited by 18
“…in the domains “memory” and “executive functions”, is correlated with current depression severity [Halvorsen et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2012; McDermott and Ebmeier, 2009], even though executive dysfunction may represent more a trait-like marker of MDD [Douglas and Porter, 2009; Lee et al., 2012].”
Sánchez‐Carro, Y., Portella, M. J., Leal‐Leturia, I., Salvat‐Pujol, N., Etxandi, M., de Arriba‐Arnau, A., Urretavizcaya, M., Pousa, E., Toll, A., Álvarez, P., et al. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.10.032 · Cited by 20
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“is evidence that improved mood in MDD is associated with improved declarative memory [51], although remitted MDD patients still exhibit significant memory deficits [23].”
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Keatley, E. S., Bombardier, C. H., Watson, E., Kumar, R. G., Novack, T. A., Monden, K. R., & Dams-O’Connor, K. (2022) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000819 · Cited by 17
Ji, Y., Li, W., Liu, B., Liu, J., Ju, Y., Wang, M., CHEN, Y., & Li, L. (2020) · Archives of Clinical Psychiatry (São Paulo) · doi:10.1590/0101-60830000000241 · Cited by 18
Hammar, Å., & Årdal, G. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00652 · Cited by 17
“Nevertheless, in the comprehensive review conducted by Douglas and Porter (2009) it was concluded that whilst some cognitive functions remain impaired during symptom improvement it seems as functioning in verbal memory recovers.”
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Depression, Fear of Falling, Cognition and Falls
Sakurai, R., & Okubo, Y. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-24233-6_4 · Cited by 17
Xiong, L., Liu, Y., Chen, Q., Tian, Y., & Yang, M. H. (2021) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s319447 · Cited by 16
“For example, quality of discharge teaching: patients with depression have been reported to have a diminished capacity for learning, which may affect their reported quality of discharge teaching.(28) So, the influencing factors of RHD for patients with MDD need further study.”
BackgroundAverill, I. R. E., Crowe, M., Frampton, C. M., Beaglehole, B., Lacey, C. J., Jordan, J., Wilson, L., Douglas, K. M., & Porter, R. (2018) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867417753549 · Cited by 16
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Visual Memory Performance in Patients with Major Depression: A 9-Month Follow-Up
Hammar, Å., & Schmid, M. T. (2013) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/09084282.2012.670170 · Cited by 20
“Furthermore, a recent review by Douglas and Porter (2009) concluded that although some cognitive functions may remain impaired despite improvement in symptoms of depression, it seems that functioning in verbal memory recovers.”
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Cognitive precursors of severe mental disorders
Wood, S. J., Yung, A. R., & Pantelis, C. (2013) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2012.750439 · Cited by 15
“There are very few longitudinal studies of neurocognitive impairment in affective disorders, and those there are do not have long follow-up periods (Douglas & Porter, 2009; Lewandowski, Cohen, & Öngur, 2011).”
BackgroundPredictors of Cognitive Improvement Following Treatment for Late-Life Depression
Siddarth, P., Funes, C. M., Laird, K. T., Ercoli, L., & Lavretsky, H. (2021) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/0891988720915515 · Cited by 15
“For some patients, cognitive symptoms remit following successful treatment of depression.(6) However, for a substantial proportion (up to 45%) of depressed older adults, cognitive symptoms persist despite remittance of their mood symptoms.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCognitive bibliotherapy and memory training for older adults with depressive symptoms
Scogin, F. R., Fairchild, J. K., Yon, A., Welsh, D. L., & Presnell, A. (2013) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2013.825898 · Cited by 14
“Studies have shown that even after the successful treatment of older adults’ depressive symptoms, impairments may persist in executive functioning and memory (Butters et al., 2000; Douglas & Porter, 2009).”
BackgroundDepressive symptoms as predictors of visual memory deficits in middle-age
Taivalantti, M., Barnett, J. H., Halt, A., Koskela, J., AUVINEN, J. P., Timonen, M., Järvelin, M., & Veijola, J. M. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.125 · Cited by 14
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Predictors of cognitive remediation therapy improvement in (partially) remitted unipolar depression
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The association between cardio-respiratory fitness and cognition in schizophrenia
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“Eighteen participants received clozapine medication (Green, 1996) or other types ofmedication (Douglas and Porter, 2009)with potential anticholinergic effects.”
BackgroundExecutive Functioning and Health
Williams, P., Tinajero, R., & Suchy, Y. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935291.013.75 · Cited by 14
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Help Me Understand: Providing Palliative Care to Individuals With Serious Mental Illness
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“Cognitive changes can also be observed among individuals with MDD, particularly in the domains of processing speed, attention, and executive functions,(22,23) Some work has suggested that certain cognitive domains can be impacted when a person is experiencing greater clinical symptoms of depression.(22) Together these…”
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“In contrast, through the analysis of longitudinal assessments, Douglas and Porter found that relief of depressive symptoms was significantly associated with improvements in verbal memory [43].”
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“transfer short-term memory into long-term; a deterioration in verbal learning processes may be observed [87].”
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“Given the affective and cognitive deficits associated with depression, an intervention addressing both domains may provide added benefit [16,17,19,20].”
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“These patient-reported findings support the empirical evidence, suggesting that although conventional antidepressants mitigate deficits in certain cognitive domains in a proportion of patients [8], outstanding deficits in executive functioning [27-29] often persist even after the depressive symptoms have remitted [30-…”
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Depression could modulate neuropsychological status in epilepsy
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The effect of negative mood and major depressive episode on working memory and implicit learning.
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“Cognitive impairment is prevalent in patients with bipolar disorder (BD) or major depressive disorder (MDD) and is associated with functional disability and poor quality of life (Douglas and Porter, 2009; Robinson et al., 2006).”
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“Empirical studies providing evidence of clinically significant cognitive impairments in MDD relative to healthy controls have steadily increased over recent decades (Bora et al., 2013; Douglas & Porter, 2009; Rock et al., 2014).”
BackgroundEvaluation of cognitive impairment in patients with major depressive disorder in remission
Ali, M. R., Fahmy, M., Haggag, W., El-Tantawy, A., & Hassan, H. (2021) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-021-00149-x · Cited by 8
“CI are found in the acute and remitted states of depression, despite pharmacological and psychotherapy interventions [5].”
BackgroundComparison of first episode and recurrent major depression patients in terms of cognitive function
Kaygusuz, Ç. Ç., Arısoy, Ö., Boztaş, M. H., & Sercan, M. (2013) · Dusunen Adam The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.5350/dajpn2013260401 · Cited by 9
“These findings were in line with Douglas and Porter’s (50) assumption stating that verbal learning, verbal memory, fluency and psychomotor speed were the most sensitive cognitive domains to the clinical state, exhibiting a more state-like character, unlike MacQueen et al.’s (19) trait like character assumption.”
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“Both depression and psychotic symptoms appear to negatively affect memory and psychomotor speed [18,34].”
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“Another possibility is that cognitive impairment is not a direct consequence of the depressive state, but both conditions share the same underlying mechanism like a neurodegenerative disorder or cerebrovascular disease [11, 48, 49].”
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Bahun, I., Ivezić, E., Đogaš, V. V., Filipčić, I. Š., & Filipčić, I. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114750 · Cited by 8
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“An analysis of cognitive function changes in patients with depression indicated that mood improvements were linked to developments in psychomotor speed, verbal fluency, and memory, whereas both executive and attentive functions remained unaltered during treatment (42).”
BackgroundStaging of Cognition in Psychiatric Illness
Allott, K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139839518.007 · Cited by 7
Cognitive Remediation for Outpatients With Recurrent Mood Disorders: A Feasibility Study
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“Extrapolating from studies of neurocognitive function in remitted depression, executive function and attention seem less likely to improve than other cognitive impairments [32].”
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COGNITIVE REMEDIATION IN PATIENTS WITH MOOD DISORDERS: BEHAVIOURAL AND NEURAL CORRELATES
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Pharmacological Treatment of Cognitive Dysfunction in Neuropsychiatric Disorders
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Pathophysiology of Cognitive Impairment in Depression
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Are cognitive deficits in major depressive disorder progressive?
Cléry-Melin, M.-L., & Gorwood, P. A. P. M. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139860567.010 · Cited by 5
Cognitive rehabilitation in psychiatry
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“in older age populations, processing speed improves with response to treatment.[48]”
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Vicent-Gil, M., Trujols, J., Sagués, T., Serra-Blasco, M., Navarra‐Ventura, G., Mantellini, C. L., Crivillés, S., Portella, M. J., & Cardoner, N. (2025) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12991-025-00552-2 · Cited by 3
“Consequently, cognitive difficulties significantly contribute to diminished quality of life and even to heighten the vulnerability to relapse in affected individuals [3, 8, 11].”
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Pantzar, A., Atti, A. R., Bäckman, L., & Laukka, E. J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00865 · Cited by 4
“Heart disease burden (coronary heart disease, heart failure, and atrial fibrillation) had significant effects for all cognitive outcomes on the performance differences between HC and DNH (ps 0.01), except for TMT-A, so that group differences were attenuated when this variable was included.”
BackgroundInfluentialÇökmüş, F. P., Özkan, H. M., Di̇ki̇ci̇, D. S., Aşçıbaşı, K., Alçı, D., Altunsoy, N., Kuru, E., Yüzeren, S., & Aydemır, Ö. (2021) · Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.5152/pcp.2021.20148 · Cited by 4
“36,37 In our study, the MADRS score was positively correlated with PDQ-D scores in every assessment time (baseline, 8 th week, and 16 th week).”
Grossman, M., Best, M. W., Harrison, A. G., & Bowie, C. R. (2018) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.12713 · Cited by 3
“…domains (eg, attention and executive functions) show persistent impairment even during periods of remission (Rock, Roiser, Riedel, & Blackwell, 2014), whereas other domains (eg, verbal learning and memory, and processing speed) tend to vary depending on clinical status (Douglas & Porter, 2009).”
BackgroundCognitive Dysfunction in Mood Disorder: Similarities and Differences Between Depression Subtypes
Kim, J. S., & Baek, J. H. (2022) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20220221-01 · Cited by 2
Hammar, Å., Ronold, E. H., Spurkeland, M. A., Ueland, R., Keßler, U., Oedegaard, K. J., & Oltedal, L. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-06270-5 · Cited by 3
Liu, S., Ma, X., Yin, M., Zhu, H., Zhao, Y., Nelson, B., Jia Liu, B., & Jia, H. (2014) · Chinese Science Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s11434-014-0198-5 · Cited by 2
Clinical relevance of cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder
Cha, D. S. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139860567.002 · Cited by 2
Underlying biological substrates associated with cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder
(2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139860567.012 · Cited by 2
Schneider, B. C., Diedrich, S., Hauschildt, M., Biedermann, S. V., Arlt, S., Moritz, S., & Jelinek, L. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x/a000330 · Cited by 3
Гафаров, В. В., Суханов, А. В., Громова, Е. А., Gagulin, I. V., & Гафарова, А. В. (2024) · CARDIOVASCULAR THERAPY AND PREVENTION · doi:10.15829/1728-8800-2024-3930 · Cited by 2
Rodríguez, M. (2012) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University) · Cited by 2
Neural Network in a Projection Learning framework for Depression classification in MYNAH cohort
Arun, V., Prajwal, V., Krishna, M., Arunkumar, B. V., Padma, S. K., & Shyam, V. (2018) · IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI) · doi:10.1109/ssci.2018.8628947 · Cited by 2
“Biomarkers for depression are derived from areas like neuro-imaging, genetics, proteomics and neuropsychological testing [2] [3] [4].”
MethodRushia, S. N., Schiff, S., Egglefield, D. A., Motter, J. N., Grinberg, A., Saldana, D. G., Shehab, A. A. S., Fan, J., & Sneed, J. R. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Science · doi:10.20900/jpbs.20200014 · Cited by 2
“In depressed populations, previous research has found that PS mediates performance on tasks of executive function [28,58].”
ResultDonegan, K. R., Hossein, S., Panny, B., Brown, V. M., Lee, C. T., Harty, S., Lynch, K., Fox, C. A., Hanlon, A. K., O’Keane, V., et al. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03722-8 · Cited by 4
“Research has shown that cognitive problems persist into remission and are associated with poor treatment outcomes overall [9, 10].”
Mamat, Z., Mathersul, D. C., & Bayley, P. J. (2025) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.70033 · Cited by 2
“Moreover, cognitive dysfunction is also found in people with major depressive disorder (Douglas & Porter, 2009).”
Functional and structural connectivity of thalamic subnuclei in major depressive disorder at 7 Tesla
Liu, W., Liu, S., Heij, J., van de Mortel, L. A., Liebrand, L. C., Caan, M. W. A., van der Zwaag, W., Veltman, D. J., Lu, L., Aghajani, M., et al. (2026) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.70048 · Cited by 1
“1,72 Cognitive impairment is common in MDD, 1 often persisting even after remission, 73,74 and it can also predict the treatment outcome of depression.”
Listunova, L., Bartolovic, M., Weisbrod, M., & Roesch-Ely, D. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x/a000167 · Cited by 1
Treatment of depressive disorder with cognitive dysfunction
Češková, E. (2017) · Psychiatrie pro praxi · doi:10.36290/psy.2017.011 · Cited by 2
刘, 嘉., 朱, 虹., 马, 辛., 刘, 珊., 赵, 永., 贾, 竑., 尹, 梦., & Nelson, B. (2014) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/csb2014-59-13-1223
Neuropsychiatric Adverse Effects of Immunosuppressant Agents
Cho, S. H., & Crone, C. C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15052-4_35 · Cited by 1
Peilstöcker, D., Meisinger, C., Linseisen, J., Baumgärtner, J., Hasan, A., Schmauß, M., & Kirchberger, I. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.09.009 · Cited by 1
Schmid, M. T., Ronold, E. H., Løchen, M., & Hammar, Å. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1623126 · Cited by 2
“Cognitive impairments are frequently reported in the acute phase of MDD, recognized as a central component of the disease in several reviews (13, 14) and meta-analysis (15), with potential impacts on quality of life (16) and daily functioning (17).”
Sammenheng mellom faktorer i BDI-II og inhibisjon hos tidligere deprimerte
Nguyen, L. (2014) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
Cognitive performance in old-age depression
Pantzar, A. (2015) · Figshare
van Terwisga, P. (2013) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University)
Maia, I. (2015) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · doi:10.34626/y66s-e435
Enhancing Memory for Therapy in Depression: A Text Messaging Intervention
Satish, A. (2014) · Berkeley Undergraduate Journal · doi:10.5070/b3263024760
Zamarrenho, L. G. (2020) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.17.2020.tde-23082020-104553
Metadata
- Authors
- Douglas, K. M., & Porter, R. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Otago (NZ)
- Venue
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-12
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1105-1117
- ISSN
- 0004-8674 (ISSN-L)
- 1440-1614
- OpenAlex
- W2055084163
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 0.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, neuropsychological deficits, treatment response, verbal memory, verbal fluency, psychomotor speed, executive function, attention, geriatric depression, longitudinal assessment, trait markers
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Attention, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Humans, Memory, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychomotor Performance, Verbal Learning, Executive Function
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