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Longitudinal Assessment of Neuropsychological Function in Major Depression
Abstract
Neuropsychological impairment is a core component of major depression, yet its relationship to clinical state is unclear. The aims of the present review were to determine which neuropsychological domains and tasks were most sensitive to improvement in clinical state in major depression and to highlight the methodological issues in such research. Studies that included a baseline and at least one follow-up neuropsychological testing session in adults with major depression were identifed using MEDLINE, Web of Science and ScienceDirect databases. Thirty studies were included in the review. Findings in younger adult populations suggested that improvement in mood was most strongly related to improved verbal memory and verbal fluency, while measures of executive functioning and attention tended to remain impaired across treatment. In late-life major depression, improved psychomotor speed was most closely related to treatment response, but there was much inconsistency between study findings, which may be due to methodological issues. In major depression, particular neuropsychological domains are more strongly related to clinical state than others. The findings from the present review suggest that the domains most sensitive to clinical state are verbal learning and memory, verbal fluency and psychomotor speed. In contrast, measures of attention and executive functioning perhaps represent more trait-like markers of major depression. With further methodologically sound research, the changes in neuropsychological function associated with treatment response may provide a means of evaluating different treatment strategies in major depression.
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“Cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder (MDD) encompasses several domains, including but not limited to executive function, verbal memory, and attention.”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Notwithstanding the heterogeneity across individual studies, the most replicated findings indicate that cognitive impairment in MDD encompasses several domains, notably attention, memory, psychomotor speed, and executive function [7–9].”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
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“…of the longitudinal course of cognitive function in depression revealed that improvements in mood were most closely related to improvements in verbal memory, verbal fluency and psychomotor speed, whereas attention and executive function remained impaired across treatment (Douglas & Porter, 2009).”
BackgroundA meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in first-episode Major Depressive Disorder
Lee, R. S. C., Hermens, D. F., Porter, M. A., & Redoblado-Hodge, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.023 · Cited by 737
“attentional switching and verbal fluency as both measures of “executive functioning”), were analysed separately since previous research suggests that inappropriate aggregation of performances across a range of tests purported to test a common function can obscure neuropsychological findings (Douglas and Porter, 2009).”
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“sion may also reflect trait-based phenomena (41,47).”
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“Keywords: Anxiety, depression, executive function, pregnancy, programming, sex differences”
Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression?
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“speed, and executive function [7–9].”
Can noninvasive brain stimulation enhance cognition in neuropsychiatric disorders?
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“It appears that specific neuropsychological realms (i.e. verbal learning, verbal memory and psychomotor speed) may be more closely related to clinical improvement than the other domains (Douglas and Porter, 2009).”
Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., Proctor, S. P., Kane, R., Heeren, T., & Franz, M. R. (2012) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.096461 · Cited by 208
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“Douglas and Porter [17] stated in their review of studies investigating neurocognitive functioning in MDDs that verbal learning and memory are the cognitive domains most sensitive to the clinical state.”
BackgroundCognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder: a state-of-the-art clinical review
Bortolato, B., Carvalho, A., & McIntyre, R. (2015) · CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871527313666141130203823 · Cited by 181
“For example, a systematic review documented that while verbal learning, memory, verbal fluency as well as psychomotor speed are more sensitive to changes in mood symptoms, measures of executive function and attention are less affected across different antidepressant treatments [126].”
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Patel, M. J., Khalaf, A. M., & Aizenstein, H. J. (2015) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2015.11.003 · Cited by 179
“Identified biomarkers representing the biological substrates of MDD have been derived from multiple domains including neuroimaging, neuropsychological testing, genetics, and proteomics (Douglas and Porter, 2009; Laje et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2009).”
Cognitive dysfunction in major depression and bipolar disorder: Assessment and treatment options
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“A review of cognitive functioning in MDD patients found that verbal learning and memory deficits were among the domains most sensitive to clinical state: improvement in mood was associated with improvement in verbal learning and memory performance.(35) In contrast, Volkert and colleagues assessed patients with BD long…”
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“Douglas and Porter (2009) reported that improved mood is associated with overall improved memory.”
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“(74) 30 MDD, 90 Healthy controls (HC) MDD: 74 (4) HC: 47 (13) 22 females MDD 47 females HC MDD: 9 (2) HC: 9 (1) Not reported Not reported Crosssectional Verbal fluency, TMT, Stroop MDD showed poorer performance than HC on TMT B, Verbal fluency, and Stroop (n.”
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“During the course of an acute episode of depression, it has been reported that cognitive deficits improve with remission of the disorder, most likely among young patients (Savard et al. 1980; for review see Beblo and Lautenbacher 2006; Douglas and Porter 2009).”
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“Overall, such studies have generally suggested that improvement in verbal memory is more closely related to treatment response compared with improvement in executive function (55).”
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“Indeed, there is some suggestion that cognitive or executive functioning deficits may be a trait risk factor for depression (Douglas and Porter, 2009; Frasch et al., 2009; Micco et al., 2009; Reppermund et al., 2009).”
Neurocognitive Functioning in Depressed Young People: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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“, 1998; Snyder, 2013), with problems related to executive function and attention persisting in remission (Douglas and Porter, 2009; Rock et al., 2014).”
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Groves, S. J., Douglas, K. M., & Porter, R. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00382 · Cited by 120
“Although aspects of these cognitive deficits may resolve following successful treatment for some individuals, it is often the case that they persist beyond remission (7, 8).”
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“Douglas and Porter (2009) found that improvement in clinical state was related to improvement in verbal memory and verbal fluency, while measures of executive functioning and attention tended to remain impaired across treatment.”
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“The possible effect of prolonged impairment in some measures of processing speed are important to further discuss, given that several researchers find MDD patients to be impaired on these measures, especially in the acute phase of illness (Tsourtos et al., 2002; Den Hartog et al., 2003; Egeland et al., 2003, 2005; Lee…”
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“There is evidence to suggest that antidepressants may improve cognition in patients with MDD, although this improvement is likely to require several months of treatment[18] and the effects of different antidepressant treatments and how they compare is not known.”
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“Finally, many of the conditions comorbid with epilepsy, especially mood disorders, can affect memory [12].”
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“However, we also saw improvements in executive function, a domain in which improvements have not been as consistently demonstrated in prior studies (7).”
InfluentialInterleukin-6 and verbal memory in recurrent major depressive disorder.
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“In adults with a lifetime history of unipolar depression currently in remission, deficits have been found in executive functions, attention, memory, and psychomotor speed (for review, see Austin et al. 2001; Douglas and Porter 2009; Hammar and Ardal 2009; Kessing 1998), and there has been some suggestion that deficits…”
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Subjective Memory Immediately Following Electroconvulsive Therapy
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“17 The extent to which subjective memory complaints in ECT-treated depression patients relate with the treatment, the disease, or some other factor remains uncertain.”
BackgroundAttention deficits in adults with Major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Wang, X., Zhou, H., & Zhu, X. (2020) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102359 · Cited by 68
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“Given that several other factors such as past psychiatric lifetime diagnoses, alcohol/substance consumption, and smoking could have a deleterious effect on EF (Douglas and Porter, 2009; Eysenck et al., 2007; van Holst and Schilt, 2011; Richards et al., 2003), we attempted to control for the effect of these potential c…”
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“01) [15–78]”
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“With regard to verbal episodic memory functions, which are considered especially sensitive predictors of the clinical course of depression [6], patients in the EG attained better results in short-term memory than patients in the CG.”
ResultHøifødt, R. S., Waterloo, K. K., Wang, C. E. A., Eisemann, M. R., Figenschau, Y., & Halvorsen, M. B. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.08.024 · Cited by 53
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“Furthermore, loneliness has been found to precede changes in depressive symptoms (Cacioppo, Hawkley, & Thisted, 2010) and changes in depressive symptoms have been found to covary with changes in cognitive functioning (Douglas & Porter, 2009).”
BackgroundLong-term Sustained Cognitive Benefits of Vagus Nerve Stimulation in Refractory Depression
Jodoin, V. D., Richer, F., Miron, J., Fournier‐Gosselin, M., & Lespérance, P. (2018) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000502 · Cited by 50
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“Nevertheless, the general scenario seem related to the idea that the relationship between cognitive deficits and the clinical situation of depressed patients is not yet clear (Douglas and Porter, 2009), although this relationship has been reported very often in researches and by clinicians who treat these patients (Ar…”
ResultPeters, A. T., Jacobs, R. H., Crane, N. A., Ryan, K. A., Weisenbach, S. L., Ajilore, O., Lamar, M., Kassel, M. T., Gabriel, L. B., West, A. E., et al. (2015) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.12253 · Cited by 45
“It is also worth noting that only 18 of the 30 studies reviewed included a healthy comparison group.(33) To address these key methodological gaps in the literature, we investigated for trait or scar risk factors in cognitive functions among unmedicated late adolescents in remission from depression with repeated assess…”
BackgroundGroves, S. J., Porter, R., Jordan, J., Knight, R. G., Carter, J. D., McIntosh, V. V. W., Fernando, K., FRAMPTON, C. M. A., Mulder, R., Lacey, C. J., et al. (2015) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22341 · Cited by 46
“Considered together, these findings add to previous research suggesting only a limited relationship between mood change and neuropsychological change during treatment of depression.[31] As noted earlier, executive functioning comprises a variety of different neuropsychological processes.”
ResultSelf-citationRelationship between depression and olfactory sensory function: a review
Athanassi, A., Doncel, R. D., Bath, K. G., & Mandairon, N. (2021) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjab044 · Cited by 62
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Porter, R., Bourke, C., Carter, J. D., Douglas, K. M., McIntosh, V. V. W., Jordan, J., Joyce, P. R., & Frampton, C. M. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715001907 · Cited by 44
“Methodological differences between studies may help to explain the variance in findings, including: severity of depression, treatments used, neuropsychological tests used, length of followup, inclusion of control groups, and statistical analyses conducted (Douglas & Porter, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAhern, E., Bockting, C., & Semkovska, M. (2019) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.v1i3.34396 · Cited by 46
“As a notable exception to the above hypothesis, Douglas and Porter (2009) showed that individuals with MDD can also improve their per‐ formance after perceived failure, albeit to a lesser extent relative to healthy controls. Ad‐ ditionally, Aker, Bø, Harmer, Stiles, and Landrø (2016) demonstrated that remitted MDD ind…”
BackgroundPaolillo, E. W., Pasipanodya, E. C., Moore, R. C., Pence, B. W., Atkinson, J. H., Grelotti, D. J., Grant, I., Heaton, R. K., & Moore, D. J. (2020) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000002346 · Cited by 43
Systematic review of neurocognition and occupational functioning in major depressive disorder
Evans, V. C., Chan, S. S., Iverson, G. L., Bond, D. J., Yatham, L. N., & Lam, R. W. (2013) · Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.2217/npy.13.3 · Cited by 42
Cognitive predictors of illness course at 12 months after first-episode of depression
Vicent-Gil, M., Keymer-Gausset, A., Serra-Blasco, M., Carceller‐Sindreu, M., de Diego-Adeliño, J., Trujols, J., Mur, M., Pérez, V., Álvarez, E., Cardoner, N., et al. (2018) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.02.001 · Cited by 43
Exploration of Major Cognitive Deficits in Medication-Free Patients With Major Depressive Disorder
Jin, L., Dong, Q., Lu, X., Sun, J., Zhang, L., Wang, M., Wan, P., Guo, H., Zhao, F., Ju, Y., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00836 · Cited by 41
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“Previous review work on the longitudinal function of MDD (Douglas & Porter, 2009) has concluded that select domains such as verbal learning, verbal memory, and verbal fluency are sensitive to the clinical state, improving with depressive symptom improvement.”
InfluentialDybedal, G. S., Tanum, L., Sundet, K. S., & Bjølseth, T. M. (2015) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2015.1050457 · Cited by 39
Cognitive Functioning in Psychiatric Disorders Following Deep Brain Stimulation
Bergfeld, I. O., Mantione, M. H. M., Hoogendoorn, M. L. C., & Denys, D. A. J. P. (2013) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2013.01.003 · Cited by 38
“In OCD and MDD, improvement of symptoms is generally accompanied by improvement of functioning in some cognitive domains, although some cognitive functions might remain below population average [55,56].”
Cognitive Impairment Along the Course of Depression: Non-Pharmacological Treatment Options
Listunova, L., Roth, C., Bartolovic, M., Kienzle, J., Bach, C., Weisbrod, M., & Roesch-Ely, D. (2018) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000492620 · Cited by 38
Longitudinal course of cognitive function across treatment in patients with MDD: A meta-analysis
Bernhardt, M., Klauke, S., & Schröder, A. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.02.021 · Cited by 43
Tsujii, N., Mikawa, W., Tsujimoto, E., Akashi, H., Adachi, T., Kirime, E., & Shirakawa, O. (2016) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2016.04.015 · Cited by 37
“We used verbal fluency as a cognitive task because it is frequently used in neuroimaging studies to measure the cognitive impairments of psychiatric patients, and it is sensitive to the clinical state of patients with MDD (Douglas and Porter, 2009).”
The interrelationship between attentional and executive deficits in major depressive disorder
Nilsson, J., Thomas, A. J., Stevens, L. H., McAllister-Williams, H., Ferrier, I. N., & Gallagher, P. (2016) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12570 · Cited by 36
“Whilst results relating to clinical factors have been mixed (12), measures of attention and executive function have been put forward as potential trait-like markers in depression (27).”
BackgroundResult“Is It Removed During Dialysis?”—Cognitive Dysfunction in Advanced Kidney Failure—A Review Article
Crowe, K., Quinn, T. J., Mark, P. B., & Findlay, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.787370 · Cited by 39
“However, even following treatment for the mood disorder, cognitive impairment can persist (75, 76).”
BackgroundBogod, N. M., Sinden, M., Woo, C., DeFreitas, V. G., Torres, I. J., Howard, A. K., Ilcewicz-Klimek, M., Honey, C. R., Yatham, L. N., & Lam, R. W. M. (2014) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12110287 · Cited by 34
Cognitive correlates of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in major depression
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Listunova, L., Kienzle, J., Bartolovic, M., Jaehn, A., Grützner, T. M., Wolf, R. C., Aschenbrenner, S., Weisbrod, M., & Roesch-Ely, D. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.07.008 · Cited by 36
Zainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2021) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.2217 · Cited by 36
Turner, A. D., Furey, M. L., Drevets, W. C., Zarate, C. A., & Nugent, A. C. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.06.003 · Cited by 34
Ronold, E. H., Schmid, M. T., Oedegaard, K. J., & Hammar, Å. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.575867 · Cited by 35
“In conclusion, results indicated persisting, stable deficits in both EFs and processing speed.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAir, T., Weightman, M. J., & Baune, B. T. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01118 · Cited by 35
“ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 04 August 2015 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01118 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 August 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1118 Edited by: Kathrin Finke, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany Reviewed by: Kristina Hennig-Fast, University of Vienna,…”
BackgroundInfluentialValvassori, S. S., Dal-Pont, G. C., Varela, R. B., Resende, W. R., Gava, F. F., Mina, F., Budni, J., & Quevedo, J. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.190 · Cited by 31
Liu, L., Lv, X., Zhou, S., Liu, Q., Wang, J., Tian, H., Zhang, K., Wei, J., Wang, C., Chen, Q., et al. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.06.020 · Cited by 31
Investigating the relationship between age of onset of depressive disorder and cognitive function
Eraydin, I. E., Mueller, C., Corbett, A., Ballard, C. G., Brooker, H. J., Wesnes, K. A., Aarsland, D., & Huntley, J. D. (2018) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4979 · Cited by 31
Neurocognitive profile of outpatients with unipolar depressive disorders
Schwert, C., Stohrer, M., Aschenbrenner, S., Weisbrod, M., & Schröder, A. (2019) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2019.1634180 · Cited by 32
A Boosted Machine Learning Approach For Detection of Depression
Arun, V., Prajwal, V., Krishna, M., Arunkumar, B. V., Padma, S. K., & Shyam, V. (2018) · IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI) · doi:10.1109/ssci.2018.8628945 · Cited by 29
Bergfeld, I. O., Mantione, M. H. M., Hoogendoorn, M. L. C., Ruhé, H. G., Horst, F., Notten, P., van Laarhoven, J., van den Munckhof, P., Beute, G. N., Schuurman, P. R., et al. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717000113 · Cited by 29
“This is consistent with literature on verbal memory improvement alongside response to other antidepressant treatment modalities (Douglas & Porter, 2009).”
ResultPerrine, B. W., McGuire, A. P., Spencer, R. J., Drag, L. L., Pangilinan, P. H., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2012) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-12-00169 · Cited by 28
Caldirola, D., Daccò, S., Grassi, M., Citterio, A., Menotti, R., Cavedini, P., Girardi, P., & Perna, G. (2013) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.12m07985 · Cited by 27
Knight, M. J., & Baune, B. T. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00539 · Cited by 27
“For example, processing speed has been linked with major depression (49, 50), but could not be independently derived from cognitive tests in the CoFaMS study, and hence was not included in the present mediation analyses.”
BackgroundSubtypes of Late-Life Depression: A Data-Driven Approach on Cognitive Domains and Physical Frailty
Lugtenburg, A., Zuidersma, M., Wardenaar, K. J., Aprahamian, I., Rhebergen, D., Schoevers, R. A., & Voshaar, R. C. O. (2020) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glaa110 · Cited by 27
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“Thus, cognitive disturbances and psychopathological symptoms appear to be distinct features of major depressive disorder, and it remains unclear whether and how acuteness of illness and the clinical state of patients with major depression may contribute to the observed cognitive impairment [6].”
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Predictors of neurocognitive impairment at 2years after a first-episode major depressive disorder
Gu, C., He, H.-L., Duan, H.-F., Su, Z., Chen, H., & Gan, J.-L. (2016) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.03.009 · Cited by 26
Effects of remission speed and improvement of cognitive functions of depressed patients
Gudayol‐Ferré, E., Guàrdia‐Olmos, J., & Peró, M. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.11.079 · Cited by 26
“In addition, some original studies and meta-analyses suggest that cognitive deficits in MDD tend to remain after the remission of depressive symptoms, at least to some degree (Douglas and Porter, 2009; HerreraGuzmán et al., 2010).”
BackgroundGrinberg, A., Egglefield, D. A., Schiff, S., Motter, J. N., & Sneed, J. R. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00209-4 · Cited by 22
Immediate and short-term effects of single-task and motor-cognitive dual-task on executive function
Zhang, W., Hua, L., & Zhang, T. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0290171 · Cited by 31
Bingaman, N., Ferguson, L., Thompson, N. R., Reyes, A., McDonald, C. R., Hermann, B. P., Arrotta, K., & Busch, R. M. (2023) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/epi.17795 · Cited by 23
“48,49 Thus future longitudinal studies should seek to determine whether non-pharmaco-logic treatments for mood symptoms alter individual cognitive phenotype classification in adults with TLE.”
BackgroundInternally vs. externally triggered movements in patients with major depression
Hoffstaedter, F., Sarlon, J., Grefkes, C., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2011) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.11.024 · Cited by 25
“Psychomotor disturbance, cognitive impairment and clinical state In the literature, memory deficits are very consistently linked to depression severity [12,50].”
BackgroundØie, M. G., Sundet, K. S., Haug, E., Zeiner, P., Klungsøyr, O., & Rund, B. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.606365 · Cited by 24
Metadata
- Authors
- Douglas, K. M., & Porter, R. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Otago (NZ)
- Venue
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-12
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1105-1117
- ISSN
- 0004-8674 (ISSN-L)
- 1440-1614
- OpenAlex
- W2055084163
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 0.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, neuropsychological deficits, treatment response, verbal memory, verbal fluency, psychomotor speed, executive function, attention, geriatric depression, longitudinal assessment, trait markers
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Attention, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Humans, Memory, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychomotor Performance, Verbal Learning, Executive Function
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