When the Great Equalizer Shuts Down: Schools, Peers, and Parents in Pandemic Times
Open accessAbstract
What are the effects of school closures during the Covid-19 pandemic on children's education?Online education is an imperfect substitute for in-person learning, particularly for children from low-income families.Peer effects also change: schools allow children from different socioeconomic backgrounds to mix together, and this effect is lost when schools are closed.Another factor is the response of parents, some of whom compensate for the changed environment through their own efforts, while others are unable to do so.We examine the interaction of these factors with the aid of a structural model of skill formation.We find that school closures have a large and persistent effect on educational outcomes that is highly unequal.High school students from poor neighborhoods suffer a learning loss of 0.4 standard deviations, whereas children from rich neighborhoods remain unscathed.The channels operating through schools, peers, and parents all contribute to growing educational inequality during the pandemic.
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The results confirm the fears held by many that school closures would cause socioeconomic gaps to widen.
“Our results show that learning loss was particularly pronounced for students from disadvantaged homes, confirming the fears held by many that school closures would cause socioeconomic gaps to widen (51 –55).”
From Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as [52]
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Martin, J. C. (2023) · doi:10.33915/etd.12152 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Role of Friends in the Opioid EpidemicPreprint
Adamopoulou, E., Greenwood, J., Nezih Guner, X., & Kopecky, K. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4726208 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
(2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009029841.016
Köpping, M., & Leitner, A. (2022) · Österreichische Zeitschrift für Soziologie · doi:10.1007/s11614-022-00482-3
How families matter for understanding economic inequality
Santos, C., & Tertilt, M. (2023) · doi:10.18235/0005124
The Ought-Does Gap in Pandemic PolicyPreprint
March, R. J., & Martin, A. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4579110
Macana, E. C., Mirolli, T. Z., Silva, A. L. F., Lazaretti, L. R., França, M. T. A., Bianchi, L. L., & Frio, G. S. (2023) · Forum for Social Economics · doi:10.1080/07360932.2023.2297161
Hassan, H., Islam, A., Wang, L. C., & Siddique, A. (2020) · AEA Randomized Controlled Trials · doi:10.1257/rct.6395-1.3
Parental beliefs, perceived health risks, and time investment in children
Conti, G., Giannola, M., & Toppeta, A. (2024) · doi:10.1920/wp/ifs.2024.1524
Waldron, L. M., Docka‐Filipek, D., Carter, C., & Thornton, R. (2024) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s0163-239620240000058006
The Impact of COVID-19 on Peer Relationships: Insights from Classroom Social NetworksPreprint
Turkum, B., & Agus, Y. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4800467
Basu, K., Chau, N. H., & Wang, Y. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5091169
Toward Human and Sustainable Development
Missaglia, M., & Vaggi, G. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-67926-1_15
A Research Practice Partnership to Accelerate Learning in Kent, WA, School District
Waldrop, R. J., Barker, E., Holland, B., Birkeland, A., & Ford, V. (2025) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003546498-9
A Stairway to Success: How Parenting Shapes Culture and Social Stratification
Agostinelli, F., Doepke, M., Sorrenti, G., & Zilibotti, F. (2025) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w33963
Self-citationOh, G. Y., Lee, E., Yoo, A., Park, C., & Lee, Y.-R. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5363089
Murray‐Watson, R. E., Ekanayake-Weber, M. S., Cohen, T., Hanmer, J., & Yaesoubi, R. (2026) · MDM Policy & Practice · doi:10.1177/23814683261455894
- Authors
- Agostinelli, F., Doepke, M., Sorrenti, G., & Zilibotti, F.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Venue
- National Bureau of Economic Research
- Publisher
- National Bureau of Economic Research
- Published
- 2020-12
- OpenAlex
- W3115822693
- Cited by
- 97
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 2
- Type
- report
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- National Bureau of Economic Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Poverty, Education, and Child Welfare
- Keywords
- school closures, COVID-19 pandemic, educational inequality, learning loss, online learning, peer effects, parental involvement, skill development, low-income households, neighborhood income, high school students
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