Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic
Open accessAbstract
Suspension of face-to-face instruction in schools during the COVID-19 pandemic has led to concerns about consequences for student learning. So far, data to study this question have been limited. Here we evaluate the effect of school closures on primary school performance using exceptionally rich data from the Netherlands (n≈350,000). We use the fact that national exams took place before and after lockdown, and compare progress during this period to the same period in the three previous years. The Netherlands underwent only a relatively short lockdown (8 weeks), and features an equitable system of school funding and the world's highest rate of broadband access. Still, our results reveal a learning loss of about 3 percentile points or 0.08 standard deviations. The effect is equivalent to a fifth of a school year, the same period that schools remained closed. Losses are up to 60% larger among students from less-educated homes, confirming worries about the uneven toll of the pandemic on children and families. Investigating mechanisms, we find that most of the effect reflects the cumulative impact of knowledge learned rather than transitory influences on the day of testing. Results remain robust when balancing on the estimated propensity of treatment and using maximum entropy weights, or with fixed-effects specifications that compare students within the same school and family. The findings imply that students made little or no progress whilst learning from home, and suggest losses even larger in countries with weaker infrastructure or longer school closures.
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Children from families with low SES were more affected than children from families with high SES (Maldonado and De Witte, 2020; Engzell et al., 2021).
“Second, children from families with a low socioeconomic status (SES) were more affected than children from families with a high SES were (Maldonado and De Witte, 2020; Engzell et al., 2021).”
From Effects of COVID-19-Related School Closures on Student Achievement-A Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Engzell et al., 2021
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Inequality and the COVID-19 Crisis in the United Kingdom
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Achievement Gaps in the Wake of COVID-19
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School Performance among Children and Adolescents during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review
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The impacts of remote learning in secondary education during the pandemic in Brazil
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COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among Parents of Children and Adolescents Living in Brazil
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An Analysis of COVID-19 Student Learning Loss
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Pandemic Schooling Mode and Student Test Scores: Evidence from US School Districts
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Experimental evidence on learning using low-tech when school is out
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The legacy of Covid-19 in education
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The impact of COVID-19 on the learning and achievement of vulnerable Canadian children and youth
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Remote Learning During COVID-19
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Evaluating the Impact of COVID-19 on Society, Environment, Economy, and Education
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The Mental Health Impacts of COVID-19 on PK–12 Students: A Systematic Review of Emerging Literature
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COVID-19 Pandemic and Student Reading Achievement: Findings From a School Panel Study
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No causal effect of school closures in Japan on the spread of COVID-19 in spring 2020
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Learning Loss During COVID-19: An Early Systematic ReviewPreprint
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Penanggulangan Dampak Learning Loss dalam Meningkatkan Mutu Pembelajaran pada Sekolah Menengah Atas
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Belastungen von Kindern, Jugendlichen und Eltern in der Corona-Pandemie
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The Long-Term Distributional and Welfare Effects of Covid-19 School Closures
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The COVID-19 Pandemic Disrupted Both School Bullying and Cyberbullying
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COVID-19, college academic performance, and the flexible grading policy: A longitudinal analysis
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School readiness losses during the COVID-19 outbreak. A comparison of two cohorts of young children
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Higher Education Students’ Online Instruction Perceptions: A Quality Virtual Learning Environment
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The Covid-19 Pandemic and School Closure: Learning Loss in Mathematics in Primary EducationPreprint
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Pandemic Schooling Mode and Student Test Scores: Evidence from US States
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No learning loss in Sweden during the pandemic: Evidence from primary school reading assessments
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Impacts of the COVID-19 Control Measures on Widening Educational Inequalities
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Measures implemented in the school setting to contain the COVID-19 pandemic
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Parents' work arrangements and gendered time use during the COVID ‐19 pandemic
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Neidhöfer, G., Lustig, N. C., & Tommasi, M. (2021) · The Journal of Economic Inequality · doi:10.1007/s10888-021-09501-x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
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Fong, C. J. (2022) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2022.2026891 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
No evidence of a major learning slide 14 months into the COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark
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Resilience in educational system: A systematic review and directions for future research
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The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child and adolescent development around the world
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The Pandemic’s effect on demand for public schools, homeschooling, and private schools
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The COVID-19 Pandemic Disrupted Both School Bullying and Cyberbullying
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Promoting Fair and Just School Environments: Developing Inclusive Youth
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- Authors
- Engzell, P., Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Stockholm University (SE)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Engzell, Per
- Frey, Arun
- Verhagen, Mark D.
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- Center for Open Science
- Published
- 2020-10-29
- Volume
- 118
- Issue
- 17
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8092566
- OpenAlex
- W3143968054
- Cited by
- 1,739
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 110 · 2025: 170 · 2024: 293 · 2023: 463 · 2022: 464 · 2021: 235 · 2020: 3 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 639.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Leverhulme Trust
- University of Oxford
- Vetenskapsrådet (2016-07099)
- Forskningsrådet om Hälsa, Arbetsliv och Välfärd (2016-07099)
- Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Économiques
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts
- Keywords
- learning loss, school closures, COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown, national examinations, academic performance, home background, parental education, home-based learning, educational inequality
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Netherlands, Quarantine, Schools, Pandemics
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