Large socio-economic, geographic and demographic disparities exist in exposure to school closures
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Abstract
The coronovirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has prompted many school districts to turn to distance or at-home learning. Studies are emerging on the negative effects of distance learning on educational performance, but less is known about the socio-economic, geographic and demographic characteristics of students exposed to distance learning. We introduce a U.S. School Closure and Distance Learning Database that tracks in-person visits across more than 100,000 schools throughout 2020. The database, which we make publicly accessible and update monthly, describes year-over-year change in in-person visits to each school throughout 2020 to estimate whether the school is engaged in distance learning. Our findings reveal that school closures from September to December 2020 were more common in schools with lower third-grade math scores and higher shares of students from racial/ethnic minorities, who experience homelessness, have limited English proficiency and are eligible for free/reduced-price school lunches. The findings portend rising inequalities in learning outcomes.
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The results confirm the fears held by many that school closures would cause socioeconomic gaps to widen.
“Our results show that learning loss was particularly pronounced for students from disadvantaged homes, confirming the fears held by many that school closures would cause socioeconomic gaps to widen (51 –55).”
From Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as [54]
Evidence from mobile phone locations indicates that 9 out of 10 schools were closed in April 2020, falling to 40 percent in September but then rising again to 56 percent in December.
“Evidence from mobile phone locations (Parolin and Lee 2021) indicates that 9 out of 10 schools were closed in April 2020, falling to 40 percent in September but then rising again to 56 percent in December.”
From Educational Inequality* (2022) · cites this paper as Parolin and Lee 2021
Parolin and Lee (2021) show that school closures in the United States in the fall of 2020 were more common for students from ethnic minorities.
“Parolin and Lee (2021) show that school closures in the United States in the fall of 2020 were more common for students from ethnic minorities.”
From Educational Inequality* (2022) · cites this paper as Parolin and Lee (2021)
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“(2021) who estimate the association between changes in Safegraph visits to schools and the spread of Covid-19 at the county level, as well as Parolin and Lee (2021) who use the Safegraph data to construct a school closure index and, like us, match the Safegraph data with information from NCES and…”
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- Authors
- Parolin, Z., & Lee, E. K.
- Affiliations
- Bocconi University (IT)
- Columbia University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Parolin, Zachary
- Venue
- Nature Human Behaviour
- Published
- 2021-03-18
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 522-528
- ISSN
- 2397-3374 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8060162
- OpenAlex
- W3138870524
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 23 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 71.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature Human Behaviour (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della Ricerca - Bocconi (submittedVersion)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (017972)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Keywords
- school closures, distance education, COVID-19 pandemic, educational inequality, socioeconomic disparities, racial and ethnic disparities, homelessness, limited English proficiency, learning outcomes
- MeSH terms
- Academic Performance, Limited English Proficiency, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adolescent, Child, Communicable Disease Control, Ethnicity, Ill-Housed Persons, Humans, Income, Minority Groups, Public Policy, Schools, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Databases, Factual, Education, Distance
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