The importance of protesters' morals: moral obligation as a key variable to understand collective action

“The theory of self-discrepancy (Higgins, 1987) posits, following the classical concept of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) that discrepancy between beliefs and actions produces psychological distress.”

“The theory of self-discrepancy (Higgins, 1987) posits, following the classical concept of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) that discrepancy between beliefs and actions produces psychological distress.”

“This devaluation is not likely to happen however, as people will resort to cognitive strategies in order to reduce cognitive dissonance and self-discrepancy, such as looking for external causes for non-compliance (Greenwald and Banaji, 1995).”

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“…as a predictor of intention to participate in collective action along with the most used predictive variables in the literature, those of the SIMCA (van Zomeren et al., 2008; Study 2); and (3) to test moral obligation’s predictive power in the context of real participation in a demonstration.”

“Despite this, it has to be noted that causal assumptions derived from mediational analysis should be addressed with caution (Spencer et al., 2005).”

“From the moment people execute these actions freely, and not forced by contextual demands, their self-concept (Higgins, 1989), wellbeing (Diener and Diener, 1995), and pride (Tracy and Robins, 2004) are boosted.”

“…were first proposed by Gamson (1992) in his work about collective action frames and have been developed and integrated into solid predictive models (for further information, see Sturmer and Simon, 2004; van Zomeren et al., 2004, 2008; Tausch et al., 2011; van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013).”

“In what refers to moral conviction, it is a term originally proposed by Skitka et al. (2005).”

“The origins of moral norm can be tracked to the work of Schwartz (1973), where he proposed the concept of personal norm (from now on referred to as moral norm, for the sake of better comprehension).”

“These variables were first proposed by Gamson (1992) in his work about collective action frames and have been developed and integrated into solid predictive models (for further information, see Sturmer and Simon, 2004; van Zomeren et al., 2004, 2008; Tausch et al., 2011; van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013).”

“…were first proposed by Gamson (1992) in his work about collective action frames and have been developed and integrated into solid predictive models (for further information, see Sturmer and Simon, 2004; van Zomeren et al., 2004, 2008; Tausch et al., 2011; van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013).”

“From the moment people execute these actions freely, and not forced by contextual demands, their self-concept (Higgins, 1989), wellbeing (Diener and Diener, 1995), and pride (Tracy and Robins, 2004) are boosted.”

“This method was carried out following the recommendations of (Bodner, 2008) (see Supplementary Data Sheet S3 for the original data matrix).”

“…were first proposed by Gamson (1992) in his work about collective action frames and have been developed and integrated into solid predictive models (for further information, see Sturmer and Simon, 2004; van Zomeren et al., 2004, 2008; Tausch et al., 2011; van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013).”

“There is a well-documented intention–behavior gap, as intentions do not always automatically result in effective behavior (Ajzen et al., 2009).”

“The discomfort caused by not acting in accordance with one’s own moral (Stets and Carter, 2012), and sacrifice (Johnson and Cureton, 2017) are the dimensions that complete the conceptualization of the Moral Obligation Scale.”

“Moral conviction was measured with a scale from van Zomeren et al. (2012).”

“The conceptualization of Schwartz’s moral norm draws from Fishbein’s (1967) work on attitude and the prediction of behavior, specifically from the personal normative belief concept, defined as “a belief of whether the particular act should or should not be performed” (Fishbein, 1967, p. 489).”

“Political participation in general and protest participation in particular are susceptible to contextual differences (Klandermans et al., 2002).”

“Moral conviction is generally regarded as a particularly strong attitude based on moral content, which is perceived as nuclear to one’s beliefs (Skitka and Morgan, 2014).”

“A moral norm scale was elaborated based on measures that assessed the moral norm through the evaluation of participant’s perception of the rightness or wrongness of behavior (Conner et al., 2003; McMillan and Conner, 2003; Moan and Rise, 2006).”

“A moral norm scale was elaborated based on measures that assessed the moral norm through the evaluation of participant’s perception of the rightness or wrongness of behavior (Conner et al., 2003; McMillan and Conner, 2003; Moan and Rise, 2006).”

“Additionally, a recent study in collective action in high risk contexts showed that risk perception predicts anger (Ayanian and Tausch, 2016).”

“The 2008 financial crisis had great impact on collective action tendencies (Likki, 2014; Klandermans and van Stekelenburg, 2016; Kriesi, 2016; Sabucedo et al., 2017a) many of them being rooted in anti-system claims (Hughes, 2011; Páez et al., 2013).”

“The existence of all these concepts that are – moral obligation (Vilas and Sabucedo, 2012) and moral conviction (van Zomeren et al., 2012; Skitka et al., 2015) – or may be – moral norm (Schwartz, 1973) – related to collective action compels us to explain this relationship further.”

“A seven-item scale was developed based on the work of (J. M. Sabucedo and Arce, 1991; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80).”

“Based on the recommendations of the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations on test quality indicators (Evers et al., 2012), the scale construction process began by defining its dimensions from a theoretical approach, where it was intended to get a more exhaustive moral obligation measure than previous ones.”

“Additionally, as already noted, moral conviction does appear as a useful predictive variable in the literature of collective action (Skitka and Wisneski, 2011; van Zomeren et al., 2012).”

“A moral norm scale was elaborated based on measures that assessed the moral norm through the evaluation of participant’s perception of the rightness or wrongness of behavior (Conner et al., 2003; McMillan and Conner, 2003; Moan and Rise, 2006).”

“Although protest was established long ago as one of the most prevalent forms of political participation, the number of street demonstrations during the last decade has risen remarkably (Kriesi, 2016; Shuman et al., 2016).”

“The 2008 financial crisis had great impact on collective action tendencies (Likki, 2014; Klandermans and van Stekelenburg, 2016; Kriesi, 2016; Sabucedo et al., 2017a) many of them being rooted in anti-system claims (Hughes, 2011; Páez et al., 2013).”

“The 2008 financial crisis had great impact on collective action tendencies (Likki, 2014; Klandermans and van Stekelenburg, 2016; Kriesi, 2016; Sabucedo et al., 2017a) many of them being rooted in anti-system claims (Hughes, 2011; Páez et al., 2013).”

“The fact that moral obligation implies a motivational pressure to defend one’s moral beliefs, even when facing personal costs, posits moral obligation as a potential useful predictor of other kinds of actions like humanitarian (Thomas et al., 2016) or even violent ones (Saab et al.”

“There have already been enticing proposals on how to promote specific kinds of collective actions (Guizzo et al., 2017), and we believe that the promotion of a sense of moral obligation could substantially aid promotional efforts.”

“The cultural context where protest takes place and/or its subject could as well generate some differences (Ketelaars et al., 2014; Sabucedo et al., 2017b).”

“The 2008 financial crisis had great impact on collective action tendencies (Likki, 2014; Klandermans and van Stekelenburg, 2016; Kriesi, 2016; Sabucedo et al., 2017a) many of them being rooted in anti-system claims (Hughes, 2011; Páez et al., 2013).”

“The fact that they are not predictive in this particular case may be because May Day demonstrations have a deep ritual character (Peterson et al., 2012).”

“The 2008 financial crisis had great impact on collective action tendencies (Likki, 2014; Klandermans and van Stekelenburg, 2016; Kriesi, 2016; Sabucedo et al., 2017a) many of them being rooted in anti-system claims (Hughes, 2011; Páez et al., 2013).”

“…2007, 2012; Skitka, 2010) inspired scientific interest in moral motivations for collective action (e.g., Jost et al., 2017; Milesi & Alberici, 2018; Sabucedo et al., 2018; van Stekelenburg et al., 2009; van Stekelenburg & Klandermans, 2009), which includes motivations based in values, moral…”