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Cited by 73Thermodynamic and Exergetic Analyses of Power and Cooling SystemsSpacecraft and Cryogenic TechnologiesPower Systems and Renewable Energy

Recent Trends on Liquid Air Energy Storage: A Bibliometric Analysis

Open access
Borri, Emiliano, Tafone, Alessio, Zsembinszki, Gabriel, Comodi, Gabriele, Romagnoli, Alessandro, Cabeza, Luisa F.·2020·Applied Sciences
DOI 10.3390/app10082773
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Abstract

The increasing penetration of renewable energy has led electrical energy storage systems to have a key role in balancing and increasing the efficiency of the grid. Liquid air energy storage (LAES) is a promising technology, mainly proposed for large scale applications, which uses cryogen (liquid air) as energy vector. Compared to other similar large-scale technologies such as compressed air energy storage or pumped hydroelectric energy storage, the use of liquid air as a storage medium allows a high energy density to be reached and overcomes the problem related to geological constraints. Furthermore, when integrated with high-grade waste cold/waste heat resources such as the liquefied natural gas regasification process and hot combustion gases discharged to the atmosphere, LAES has the capacity to significantly increase the round-trip efficiency. Although the first document in the literature on the topic of LAES appeared in 1974, this technology has gained the attention of many researchers around the world only in recent years, leading to a rapid increase in a scientific production and the realization of two system prototype located in the United Kingdom (UK). This study aims to report the current status of the scientific progress through a bibliometric analysis, defining the hotspots and research trends of LAES technology. The results can be used by researchers and manufacturers involved in this entering technology to understand the state of art, the trend of scientific production, the current networks of worldwide institutions, and the authors connected through the LAES. Our conclusions report useful advice for the future research, highlighting the research trend and the current gaps.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This bibliometric analysis maps liquid air energy storage (LAES) research using Scopus, showing rapid growth after 2010 and identifying thermodynamic/exergy analysis, waste heat/cold integration, and cold/hot storage as major hotspots. It concludes that experimental studies demonstrating real LAES performance are the main research gap.

Key findings

  • The Scopus query returned 387 documents initially; restricting to title, abstract, and keywords yielded 132 documents strictly related to LAES. The first LAES concept appeared in 1974, with renewed growth after 2010 and a first peak of 13 publications in 2015.
  • Applied Energy had the most LAES publications (21), followed by Energy Procedia (18), Energy (10), and Applied Thermal Engineering (6). Engineering and energy were the main subject areas at 33% and 29%, respectively, followed by environmental science at 15% and physics/astronomy at 8%.
  • The University of Birmingham had the most publications among institutions (25), and Yulong Ding led authors with 16 LAES publications, followed by Yongliang Li with 13 and Alessandro Romagnoli with 12. The UK had the strongest country output, followed by China, Italy, and Germany; Singapore had the highest publications per million inhabitants.
  • Keyword analysis showed LAES research focused on thermodynamics, exergy analysis, economic analysis, compressed air energy storage, liquefied natural gas, waste heat, packed bed, cold storage, and organic Rankine cycle. The paper reports round-trip efficiency for large-scale LAES around 50%, lower than CAES and pumped electric energy storage around 70%.

Methods

  • Bibliometric analysis using Scopus as the reference database, with Google Scholar excluded due to poor accuracy. The search query was: ("liquid air energy storage" OR ("energy storage" AND ("liquid air"))) AND NOT ("graphene hydrogel*" OR "supercapacitor*" OR "polymer*" OR "biosensor*" OR "hot working" OR "laser power system*" OR "LNGES"), with last access in November 2019.
  • The initial 387 documents were narrowed to 132 by searching only title, abstract, and keywords. Results were analyzed by publication year, document type, journal, subject area, country, institution, author, and keywords.
  • VOSviewer was used to graphically elaborate links between authors, countries, institutions, and keywords, including co-occurrence and overlay visualizations.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the query excluded terms such as “cryogenic” because they led to cryogeny or low-temperature applications not related to LAES; this likely missed relevant works using “cryogenic energy storage,” including those from Yonsei University and Cornell University.
  • The paper states that some early authors’ institutions could not be found, and some authors appeared under different names, so grouping them may mean reported h-index and document counts do not correspond to the real values.
  • The paper states that Scopus was used as the only database and Google Scholar was excluded; the text also makes evident that the analysis is a bibliometric snapshot limited to November 2019 and does not assess experimental performance directly.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/app10082773

Cites

50 of 50 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

9 of 37 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Compared to other energy storage systems, LAES guarantees higher volumetric energy density (214 Wh/kg).

    “Compared to other energy storage systems, LAES guarantees higher volumetric energy density (214 Wh/kg) and no geographical constrains [6].”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Compared to other similar large-scale technologies such as compressed air energy storage or pumped hydroelectric energy storage, the use of liquid air as a storage medium allows a high energy density to be reached and overcomes the problem related to geological constraints.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Luo, 2015, Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation q, Appl. Energy source

      The comparison table (Section 4; page unavailable) lists liquid-air storage as having 4–6 times the energy density of CAES at 200 bar and gives a value of 214. It does not establish higher density than all other storage systems, and Wh/kg measures energy per unit mass, not volumetric energy density. Section 3.2 identifies geographical constraints for CAES, but does not explicitly establish their absence for LAES. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Scopus includes a larger number of works referring to technological topics compared to other databases such as Web of Science.

    “the database Scopus was used as a reference, since it includes a large number of works referring to technological topics compared to other databases such as Web of Science [18]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Cabeza, L.F., Chàfer, M., and Mata, É. (2020). Comparative Analysis of Web of Science and Scopus on the Energy Efficiency and Climate Impact of Buildings. Energies, 13. source

      The Introduction says Scopus covers more journals than Web of Science, and the Conclusions report more Scopus records in this study of building energy efficiency and climate impact. The Conclusions also say Engineering and Energy Fuels are especially covered in Scopus. These findings support the comparison in this field, but not the broader claim that Scopus has more works on technological topics generally. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Compared to other energy storage systems, LAES has no geographical constraints.

    “Compared to other energy storage systems, LAES guarantees higher volumetric energy density (214 Wh/kg) and no geographical constrains [6].”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Compared to other similar large-scale technologies such as compressed air energy storage or pumped hydroelectric energy storage, the use of liquid air as a storage medium allows a high energy density to be reached and overcomes the problem related to geological constraints.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Luo, 2015, Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation q, Appl. Energy source

      Section 3.2 says suitable geographical locations are a major barrier for large-scale CAES, but does not say whether LAES has that barrier. Section 3.10 describes LAES as cryogenic storage without addressing geographical constraints. Searches for LAES siting and geographical requirements found no passage establishing the claimed absence of constraints. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    The presence of the keywords 'packed bed' and 'cold storage', linked to studies after 2018, highlights an interesting trend to investigate efficient cold storage solutions (including packed bed configuration) integrated with the LAES technology.

    “The presence of the keywords”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [56] Span, 2019, Influence of the heat capacity of the storage material on the efficiency of thermal regenerators in liquid air energy storage systems, Energy source
    • cites [57] Sciacovelli, 2017, Liquid air energy storage (LAES) with packed bed cold thermal storage—From component to system level performance through dynamic modelling, Appl. Energy source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    In some LAES systems proposed in the literature, the waste heat at high temperature is recovered and used in the same system.

    “In some LAES systems proposed in the literature, the waste heat at high temperature is recovered and used in the same system [49].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Guizzi, 2015, Thermodynamic analysis of a liquid air energy storage system, Energy source

      The indexed passages contain repository metadata (labelled Abstract) and PDF listings (01 - Articolo su rivista), but no passage describing how the LAES system handles heat. Searches for high-temperature waste-heat recovery and reuse within the cycle returned no substantive text, so the claim cannot be checked against the available copy. (LLM, conf=0.70)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • May combine two claims. 23
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After one additional paper in 1982 by Dooley et al., no documents regarding liquid air as energy storage were published until 1998 in Japan by Mitsubishi-Hitachi, with no further developments after 2002.

    “After one additional paper was published in 1982 by Dooley et al. [25], no documents regarding liquid air as energy storage were published until the year 1998 in Japan by Mitsubishi-Hitachi [26][27][28][29][30][31], with no further developments after 2002.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [25] Dooley, 1982, COMPACT ENERGY STORAGE 82-1696 JL Dooley* and R. Philip Hammond R&D Associates, Marina del Rey, CA 90291, Proceedings of the A Collection of Technical Papers: AIAA/EPRI International Conference on Underground Pumped Hydro and Compressed Air Energy Storage

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] Kitou, 2002, Liquid air energy storage system (study of air liquefaction characteristics using a concrete-type cool storage unit), Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu B Hen/Trans. Jpn. Soc. Mech. Eng. Part B source

      The title and author affiliation (p. 1) identify this as a 2002 Japanese liquid-air energy-storage study conducted at Hitachi, and the references (p. 7) include related Japanese papers from 1998. The paper does not establish that nothing was published between 1982 and 1998, attribute the 1998 work to Mitsubishi-Hitachi, or address developments after 2002. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [27] Araki, 2002, Simulation of heat transfer in the cool storage unit of a liuid-air energy storage system, Heat Transf.-Asian Res. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Most of the work published in that period investigated LAES mainly through thermodynamic analysis, with some studies that considered the economic aspect.

    “most of the work published in that period investigated the LAES mainly through thermodynamic analysis [49,50], with some studies that considered the economic aspect [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [49] Guizzi, 2015, Thermodynamic analysis of a liquid air energy storage system, Energy source
    • cites [50] Xue, 2015, Thermodynamic analysis of a novel liquid air energy storage system, Phys. Procedia source
    • cites [51] Xie, 2018, An economic feasibility assessment of decoupled energy storage in the UK: With liquid air energy storage as a case study, Appl. Energy source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    From the keywords, compressed air energy storage (CAES) appeared among the keywords related to energy storage.

    “From the keywords, it was possible to observe that between the keywords related to energy storage, it appeared as compressed air energy storage (CAES).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Keywords and their co-occurrence in publications reflect the state-of-the-art, research hotspots, and future trends of LAES.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Yulong Ding leads the ranking with 16 documents, followed by Yongliang Li with 13 documents.

    “Yulong Ding leads the ranking with 16 documents, followed by Yongliang Li with 13 documents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Yulong Ding and Yongliang Li belong to the University of Birmingham and have total numbers of 351 and 76 documents and an h-index of 54 and 18, respectively.

    “These two authors belong to the same institution, the University of Birmingham, and have a total number of 351 and 76 documents and an h-index of 54 and 18, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The second country with the highest number of publications was China, followed by Italy and Germany.

    “The second country with the highest number of publications highlighted by the map in Figure 8 was China, followed by Italy and Germany.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Publication counts and citation counts are valid indicators of scientific progress and research interest in a field.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Energy (10 publications) and Applied Thermal Engineering (six publications) had relevant numbers of LAES publications.

    “Other journals with a relevant number of publications were Energy (10 publications) and Applied Thermal Engineering (six publications).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In 2018, the number of studies published by University of Birmingham, Nanyang Technological University, and Università Politecnica delle Marche decreased compared to the previous year, then rose again in 2019.

    “It is interesting to note in Figure 7, that in 2018, the number of studies published by those last three institutions decreased when compared to the previous year, to rise again in 2019.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Two LAES system prototypes are located in the United Kingdom.

    “the realization of two system prototype located in the United Kingdom (UK)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Applied Energy contained the most publications related to LAES (21 publications), followed by Energy Procedia (18 publications).

    “Applied Energy was the journal that contained more publications related to LAES (21 publications), followed by Energy Procedia (18 publications).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    LAES technology has gained the attention of many researchers around the world only in recent years.

    “this technology has gained the attention of many researchers around the world only in recent years”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Publication counts and citation counts are valid indicators of scientific progress and research interest in a field.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Another grid-scale 5 MW/15 MWh plant was launched in 2018 in Bury (Manchester) by Highview Power and Viridor.

    “Furthermore, another grid-scale 5 MW/15 MWh plant was launched in 2018 in Bury (Manchester) by Highview Power and Viridor [36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] (2020, April 16). Highview Power. Available online: https://www.highviewpower.com/.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The publication trend started again in 2010, reaching a first peak in 2015 (13 publications) and then again in 2017, 2018, and 2019, where the largest number of studies published occurred.

    “Figure 3 also shows that the trend started again in 2010, reaching a first peak in 2015 (13 publications) and then again in 2017, 2018, and 2019, where the largest number of studies published occurred.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Publication counts and citation counts are valid indicators of scientific progress and research interest in a field.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    Terms such as thermodynamic efficiency and exergetic efficiency are often used as the main index of comparison with other energy storage technologies.

    “terms such as thermodynamic efficiency and exergetic efficiency are often used as the main index of comparison with other energy storage technologies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most articles were published in high-quality journals (Q1) without open access.

    “Most articles were published in high-quality journals (Q1) without open access.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The keywords are divided into different clusters, highlighted by different colors in Figure 13.

    “Figure 13 shows that the keywords are divided into different clusters, highlighted by the different colors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Other frequent keywords identified from the map in Figure 12 are 'renewable energy', 'liquid air', 'compressed air', 'energy efficiency', 'exergy', 'compressed air energy storage', 'thermodynamics', and 'liquefaction'.

    “Other frequent keywords that can be identified from the map shown in Figure 12, are”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    According to Scopus, Morgan et al. 2015 has the highest number of citations amongst publications related to LAES.

    “that, according to the Scopus database, has the highest number of citations amongst the publications related to LAES.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Morgan, 2015, Liquid air energy storage—Analysis and first results from a pilot scale demonstration plant, Appl. Energy source
    • Rests on an assumption: Publication counts and citation counts are valid indicators of scientific progress and research interest in a field.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most of the top 10 institutions with more documents published on LAES were universities, but Hitachi Ltd. authored all publications from 1998 to 2002.

    “From the table, it is possible to note that most of the institutions included in the top 10 were universities, but the presence of Hitachi Ltd. must be pointed out as they authored all publications from 1998 to 2002.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In recent years, the United Kingdom has been identified as the core of LAES technology and hosts the first 350 kW/2.5 MWh pilot plant in the world, developed first by Highview Power Storage at Slough and now relocated to the University of Birmingham.

    “Indeed, in recent years, the United Kingdom has been identified as the core of the LAES technology, and hosts the first 350 kW/2.5 MWh pilot plant in the world, developed first by Highview Power Storage at Slough and now relocated to the University of Birmingham [32,33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [32] Sciacovelli, A., Smith, D., Navarro, H., Li, Y., and Ding, Y. (2016, January 19–23). Liquid air energy storage–Operation and performance of the first pilot plant in the world. Proceedings of the ECOS, Portorož, Slovenia.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [33] Morgan, 2015, Liquid air energy storage—Analysis and first results from a pilot scale demonstration plant, Appl. Energy source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the last three years, most documents were produced by the University of Birmingham, with a peak of 10 publications in 2017.

    “The results showed that in the last three years, most of the documents were produced by the University of Birmingham, with a peak of 10 publications in 2017.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Publication counts and citation counts are valid indicators of scientific progress and research interest in a field.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In 2017, Nanyang Technological University (including ERI@N) and Università Politecnica delle Marche started to work on LAES, producing a relevant number of publications compared to other institutions.

    “In the same year, Nanyang Technological University (including ERI@N) and Università Politecnica delle Marche started to work on the topic of LAES, producing a relevant number of publications compared to the other institutions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Environmental science covered 15%, followed by physics and astronomy (8%).

    “Another large portion relied on environmental science, which covered 15%, followed by physics and astronomy (8%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    The keywords 'thermodynamics', 'compressed air energy storage', 'waste heat', and 'economic analysis' were popular in documents published around 2017.

    “The keywords”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    This has led to a rapid increase of scientific production on the topic of LAES, with a growing number of worldwide institutions investigating the potential of this technology.

    “This has led to a rapid increase of scientific production on the topic of LAES, with a growing number of worldwide institutions investigating the potential of this technology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    At low temperatures, different studies in the literature have used the LAES technology to exploit the waste cold thermal energy from cryogenic processes such as in liquefied natural gas regasification plants.

    “at low temperatures, different studies in the literature have used the LAES technology to exploit the waste cold thermal energy from cryogenic processes such as in liquefied natural gas regasification plants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The most common system integrated to the LAES as a waste heat recovery solution is the organic Rankine cycle (ORC).

    “The most common system integrated to the LAES as a waste heat recovery solution is the organic Rankine cycle (ORC)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The first publication on LAES appeared in 1974.

    “Although the first publication on LAES appeared on 1974”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    The analysis of the keywords lacked terms related to experimental studies that demonstrate the real performance of the system.

    “The analysis of the keywords lacked terms related to experimental studies that demonstrate the real performance of the system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The documents obtained with the restricted query were strictly related to the LAES topic, confirming a correct formulation of the query.

    “Analyzing the output, the documents given were strictly related to the LAES topic, confirming a correct formulation of the query.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The bibliometric analysis results were obtained by elaborating and analyzing the data of all 132 papers collected from the Scopus database.

    “The results of the bibliometric analysis shown in this section were obtained elaborating and analyzing the data of all 132 papers collected from the Scopus database.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lower relevance of the keyword 'liquid air energy storage' can probably be attributed to the presence of the keyword 'cryogenic energy storage', which is sometimes used to represent the same technology.

    “This can probably be attributed to the presence of the keyword”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Yonsei University and Cornell University are active in LAES but were not reported in Table 2 because they often use the terminology 'cryogenic energy storage', which was not included in the query.

    “It is worth mentioning that Yonsei University and Cornell University are not reported in Table 2. Indeed, these institutions, active in the topic of LAES [34,35], often use the terminology”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [34] Park, 2019, Economic Process Selection of Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification: Power Generation and Energy Storage Applications, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. source
    • cites [35] Lee, 2019, A novel cryogenic energy storage system with LNG direct expansion regasification: Design, energy optimization, and exergy analysis, Energy source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In recent years, LAES has gained momentum as an alternative energy storage technology characterized by high energy density and no geological constraints with the ability to be integrated with high-grade waste cold or waste heat resources.

    “In recent years, LAES has gained momentum as an alternative energy storage technology characterized by high energy density and no geological constraints with the ability to be integrated with high-grade waste cold or waste heat resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The aim of these approaches is to estimate the efficiency of the LAES and propose solutions to increase the system performance.

    “with the aim to estimate the efficiency of the LAES and propose solutions to increase the system performance”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This aspect (experimental studies) is weak and has not been deeply investigated.

    “This shows that this aspect is weak and has not been deeply investigated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The recovery of the waste heat can improve the discharge performance.

    “the recovery of the waste heat can improve the discharge performance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    This represents the main gap that future scientific research should fill in to reach a significant milestone in the LAES technology.

    “This represents the main gap that future scientific research should fill in to reach a significant milestone in the LAES technology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Keyword co-occurrence patterns in the bibliometric analysis reflect the actual research focus and trends in LAES.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Recovering cold energy is demonstrated to be crucial to increase the efficiency of the liquefaction process.

    “recovering cold energy is demonstrated to be crucial to increase the efficiency of the liquefaction process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    LAES is characterized by the advantage that it can be integrated with waste cold energy resources such as the regasification of liquefied natural gas.

    “LAES is characterized by the advantage that it can be integrated with waste cold energy resources such as the regasification of liquefied natural gas [8,37,48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [8] Kim, 2018, Storage system for distributed-energy generation using liquid air combined with liquefied natural gas, Appl. Energy source
    • cites [37] Peng, 2019, Liquid air energy storage flexibly coupled with LNG regasification for improving air liquefaction, Appl. Energy source
    • cites [48] Lee, 2019, Systems design and analysis of liquid air energy storage from liquefied natural gas cold energy, Appl. Energy source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationown data

    This identifies the first research gap.

    “identifying the first research gap.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Keyword co-occurrence patterns in the bibliometric analysis reflect the actual research focus and trends in LAES.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Increasing the thermodynamic efficiency of LAES is an important target of the technology feasibility, since it represents the main disadvantage when compared to other technologies.

    “increasing the thermodynamic efficiency of the LAES is an important target of the technology feasibility, since it represents the main disadvantage when compared to other technologies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The research of new storage materials and thermal energy storage designed to efficiently store the cold and hot energy represents a hotspot.

    “the research of new storage materials and thermal energy storage designed to efficiently store the cold and hot energy, represents a hotspot that future research should take into account to improve the LAES technology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
43 of 43

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Keywords and their co-occurrence in publications reflect the state-of-the-art, research hotspots, and future trends of LAES.

    “The analysis of keywords was an important aspect of this research to identify the state-of-the-art, scope, and the objectives of the research that had been done and future prospective; moreover, research gaps could be identified.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Publication counts and citation counts are valid indicators of scientific progress and research interest in a field.

    “To evaluate the research trend and the future perspectives on LAES, bibliometric analysis techniques represent a statistical method that allows the growth and the scientific progress of a certain topic to be evaluated, giving an overall view of today's research.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    LAES is often classified as an alternative storage solution to the actual large scale energy storage technologies.

    “the LAES is often classified as an alternative storage solution to the actual large scale energy storage technologies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The thermal energy released by LAES is both at high temperature (during compression when charging) and cryogenic temperature (during liquid air regasification when discharging).

    “the thermal energy released is both at high temperature (energy wasted during the compression when LAES is charging) and cryogenic temperature (energy wasted the liquid air regasification process when LAES is discharging).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cold energy is mainly reused to help the liquefaction of the liquid air when the system is charged, thus increasing the efficiency.

    “this is mainly reused to help the liquefaction of the liquid air when the system is charged, thus increasing the efficiency.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Keyword co-occurrence patterns in the bibliometric analysis reflect the actual research focus and trends in LAES.

    “Applying bibliometric techniques in the analysis of the keywords, the most relevant aspects of the current research were analyzed to identify research gaps and future trends that could be used to inspire future research.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The set of publications retrieved by the query is representative of the research on LAES.

    “This is an interesting approach to describe the frequency of the keywords in the different years (from 2015 to 2018) for the query used.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The clustering of keywords produced by VOSviewer reflects meaningful relationships among research topics.

    “Figure 13 shows that the keywords are divided into different clusters, highlighted by the different colors.”
8 of 8

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Journal category is stated as Q4 but absent from the table

    Minor

    The prose assigns Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers a Q4 category, while its Table 1 entry shows a dash rather than Q4 in the Category column.

  • The cited reference does not match the claimed first publication

    Minor

    The text attributes the 1974 first publication to Sheperd and cites [22], but reference 22 is a 1977 paper by Smith. The 1974 Shepherd paper appears as reference 21.

  • Entropy is described as open access but marked otherwise

    Minor

    The prose identifies Entropy as an open-access journal, whereas Table 1 marks its "Full Open Access" status as "No."

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Dooley, 1982, COMPACT ENERGY STORAGE 82-1696 JL Dooley* and R. Philip Hammond R&D Associates, Marina del Rey, CA 90291, Proceedings of the A Collection of Technical Papers: AIAA/EPRI International Conference on Underground Pumped Hydro and Compressed Air Energy Storage, Volume 120, 288
  2. Sciacovelli, A., Smith, D., Navarro, H., Li, Y., and Ding, Y. (2016, January 19–23). Liquid air energy storage–Operation and performance of the first pilot plant in the world. Proceedings of the ECOS, Portorož, Slovenia.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Borri, E., Tafone, A., Zsembinszki, G., Comodi, G., Romagnoli, A., & Cabeza, L. F.
Affiliations
  • Universitat de Lleida (ES)
  • Nanyang Technological University (SG)
  • Marche Polytechnic University (IT)
Corresponding author
Cabeza, Luisa F.
ORCID
Venue
Applied Sciences
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2020-04-16
Volume
10
Issue
8
Pages
2773
ISSN
2076-3417 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/app10082773
OpenAlex
W3017124177
Cited by
73
References
50
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 4
FWCI
6.15
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Applied Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • RECERCAT (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Repositori ObertUDL (University of Lleida) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Università Politecnica delle Marche (Università Politecnica delle Marche) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (RTI2018-093849-B-C31 - MCIU/AEI/FEDER, UE, RED2018-102431-T)
  • Generalitat de Catalunya (2017 SGR 1537, GREiA - TECNIO)
  • Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA Academia)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Thermodynamic and Exergetic Analyses of Power and Cooling Systems
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies
  • Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Power Systems and Renewable Energy
Keywords
liquid air energy storage, cryogenic energy storage, large-scale energy storage, round-trip efficiency, waste heat recovery, liquefied natural gas regasification, research trends, research hotspots

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-30.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-30.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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