Impact of Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality on Educational Inclusion: A Systematic Review of Technologies Supporting Students with Disabilities

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is one study [57] which includes participants with various disabilities in its research methodology, without defining them.

“Finally, there is one study [57] which includes participants with various disabilities in its research methodology, without, however, defining them.”

• cites [57] Bervell, 2023, Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education: Modelling the Antecedents of Artificial Intelligence Usage and Effects on 21st Century Employability Skills among Postgraduate Students in Ghana, Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ghana, Italy, and Spain each had one study included.

“Ghana, Italy, and Spain are also included in the map, with one study being conducted in each.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most of the included studies were conducted in the United Kingdom (n = 4), followed by the United States (n = 3), and Sweden (n = 2).

“Most of the studies were conducted in the United Kingdom (n = 4), followed by the United States (n = 3), and Sweden (n = 2).”

May combine two claims.

VR technology provides students with great amounts of physical exercise, connecting the learning process with students' personal well-being [55].

“Apart from academic development, VR technology provides students with great amounts of physical exercise, connecting thus the learning process with students' personal well-being [55].”

• cites [55] Barrio, 2020, Virtual Reality Exercise Games for High School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Coughlan [51] and Lister [53] mention mental health-related disabilities, and chronic health conditions such as diabetes, asthma, and fatigue are included in their studies.

“Coughlan [51] and Lister [53] make mention of mental health-related disabilities, while also chronic health conditions, such as diabetes, asthma, and fatigue are included in their studies.”

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [53] *Lister, K., Coughlan, T., Kenny, I., Tudor, R., and Iniesto, F. (2021). Taylor, the Disability Disclosure Virtual Assistant: A Case Study of Participatory Research with Disabled Students. Educ. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Studies from six different countries were included in this systematic review.

“Studies from six different countries were included in this systematic review.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other various intellectual disabilities [55,58] were also included.

“while other various intellectual disabilities [55,58] were also included.”

• cites [55] Barrio, 2020, Virtual Reality Exercise Games for High School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [58] Brown, 2020, An Evaluation of an Adaptive Learning System Based on Multimodal Affect Recognition for Learners with Intellectual Disabilities, Br. J. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Higher academic performance is achieved either through the increase in user-friendly, interactive platforms [51] or through the increased development of students' educational skills, such as reading or writing [59].

“This is either achieved through the increase in user-friendly, interactive platforms [51] or through the increased development of students' educational skills, such as reading or writing [59].”

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Lindeblad, 2021, Effects of Assistive Technology for Students with Reading and Writing Disabilities, Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

AI technology's well-developed response systems can give immediate and personalised feedback on students' performance [52,56,58], helping them fill gaps and organise their work [51].

“Another way through which AI technology is assisting students with disabilities is its well-developed response systems, which can give immediate and personalised feedback on students' performance [52,56,58], helping them fill gaps and organise their work [51].”

• cites [52] Chen, 2022, Supporting Inclusive Learning Using Chatbots? A Chatbot-Led Interview Study, J. Inf. Syst. Educ.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [56] Alcorn, 2018, Blending Human and Artificial Intelligence to Support Autistic Children’s Social Communication Skills, ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [58] Brown, 2020, An Evaluation of an Adaptive Learning System Based on Multimodal Affect Recognition for Learners with Intellectual Disabilities, Br. J. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants with autism were included in half of the selected studies [51,53,55,56,58].

“Participants with autism were included in half of the selected studies [51,53,55,56,58]”

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [53] *Lister, K., Coughlan, T., Kenny, I., Tudor, R., and Iniesto, F. (2021). Taylor, the Disability Disclosure Virtual Assistant: A Case Study of Participatory Research with Disabled Students. Educ. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [55] Barrio, 2020, Virtual Reality Exercise Games for High School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [56] Alcorn, 2018, Blending Human and Artificial Intelligence to Support Autistic Children’s Social Communication Skills, ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [58] Brown, 2020, An Evaluation of an Adaptive Learning System Based on Multimodal Affect Recognition for Learners with Intellectual Disabilities, Br. J. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Ten articles were considered relevant and selected for review.

“Finally, 10 of the articles were considered relevant and were selected for review in the ensuing categories.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is one transnational study conducted between the United Kingdom, Italy, and Spain.

“There is one transnational study which was conducted between the United Kingdom, Italy, and Spain.”

May combine two claims.

AI and VR technologies empower and incentivise students with disabilities to take initiative, develop their autonomy, and enhance their mental health [52,53,56,59], as well as their social skills [52].

“They also play a significant role in empowering and incentivising students with disabilities to take initiative, develop their autonomy, and enhance their mental health [52,53,56,59], as well as their social skills [52].”

• cites [52] Chen, 2022, Supporting Inclusive Learning Using Chatbots? A Chatbot-Led Interview Study, J. Inf. Syst. Educ.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [53] *Lister, K., Coughlan, T., Kenny, I., Tudor, R., and Iniesto, F. (2021). Taylor, the Disability Disclosure Virtual Assistant: A Case Study of Participatory Research with Disabled Students. Educ. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [56] Alcorn, 2018, Blending Human and Artificial Intelligence to Support Autistic Children’s Social Communication Skills, ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Lindeblad, 2021, Effects of Assistive Technology for Students with Reading and Writing Disabilities, Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Epilepsy, a neurological disability, is included in the studies used for this systematic review [51,53].

“Epilepsy, a neurological disability, is also included in the studies used for this systematic review [51,53].”

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [53] *Lister, K., Coughlan, T., Kenny, I., Tudor, R., and Iniesto, F. (2021). Taylor, the Disability Disclosure Virtual Assistant: A Case Study of Participatory Research with Disabled Students. Educ. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Foetal alcohol syndrome was part of one of the selected studies [55].

“Foetal alcohol syndrome, a less popular disability, was also part of one of the selected studies [55].”

• cites [55] Barrio, 2020, Virtual Reality Exercise Games for High School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Out of the ten included studies, four follow the quantitative research model, four the qualitative research model, and two the mixed methods research design.

“out of the ten included studies, four follow the quantitative research model, four the qualitative research model, and two the mixed methods research design.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Despite the aforementioned challenges, all selected studies focus on the significant power of AI and VR in supporting diverse learners and promoting inclusive educational environments.

“Despite the aforementioned challenges, all selected studies focus on the significant power of AI and VR in supporting diverse learners and promoting inclusive educational environments.”

May combine two claims.

AI and VR technologies must be adapted to satisfy a large number of varied personal and educational needs of students [51,55], making it almost impossible for one-size-fits-all solutions to be found.

“Furthermore, AI and VR technologies must be adapted in order to satisfy a large number of varied personal and educational needs of students [51,55], making it almost impossible for one-size-fits-all solutions to be found.”

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [55] Barrio, 2020, Virtual Reality Exercise Games for High School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Segbenya et al. [57] caution that the risk of over-reliance on these tools is prevalent and could potentially hinder the development of critical thinking skills, especially in cases where students are totally dependent on them for the completion of their tasks.

“Additionally, Segbenya et al. [57] caution that the risk of over-reliance on these tools is prevalent and could potentially hinder the development of critical thinking skills, especially in cases where students are totally dependent on them for the completion of their tasks.”

• cites [57] Bervell, 2023, Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education: Modelling the Antecedents of Artificial Intelligence Usage and Effects on 21st Century Employability Skills among Postgraduate Students in Ghana, Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The literature focuses on the issue of promoting ethical and responsible methods of integrating assistive tools, so that they can effectively and appropriately complement every part of the learning experiences for students [54].

“Finally, the literature also focuses on the issue of promoting ethical and responsible methods of integrating these assistive tools, so that they can effectively and appropriately complement every part of the learning experiences for the students [54].”

• cites [54] Juth, 2023, University Teachers’ Perceptions of Responsibility and Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education—An Experimental Philosophical Study, Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Zhang et al. [66] in their recent research have supported this idea, presenting how students with autism can develop and practise their social and problem-solving skills through simulations of real-world scenarios that VR technologies are offering.

“Zhang et al. [66] in their recent research have supported this idea, presenting how students with autism can develop and practise their social and problem-solving skills through simulations of real-world scenarios that VR technologies are offering.”

• cites [66] Zhang, M., Ding, H., Naumceska, M., and Zhang, Y. (2022). Virtual Reality Technology as an Educational and Intervention Tool for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Current Perspectives and Future Directions. Behav. Sci., 12. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Certain VR technologies can be technically complex to navigate through, posing a potential challenge for students with disabilities who may need additional support in order to use them effectively.

“Furthermore, certain VR technologies can be technically complex to navigate through, posing a potential challenge for students with disabilities who may need additional support in order to use them effectively.”

May combine two claims.

Porayska-Pomsta et al. [56] demonstrated the skills that students with Autism Spectrum Conditions acquired, including greater autonomy and responsiveness, when a hybrid approach blending AI and VR technologies with the work of human practitioners, concluding that it constitutes the most effective teaching model.

“On a similar note, Porayska-Pomsta et al. [56] demonstrated the skills that students with Autism Spectrum Conditions acquired, including greater autonomy and responsiveness, when a hybrid approach blending AI and VR technologies with the work of human practitioners, concluding that it constitutes the most effective teaching model.”

• cites [56] Alcorn, 2018, Blending Human and Artificial Intelligence to Support Autistic Children’s Social Communication Skills, ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Svensson et al. [59] put emphasis on the complex nature of certain assistive technologies which are considered too inaccessible or elaborated for students with disabilities to navigate through them.

“On the other hand, Svensson et al. [59] put emphasis on the complex nature of certain assistive technologies which are considered too inaccessible or elaborated for students with disabilities to navigate through them.”

• cites [59] Lindeblad, 2021, Effects of Assistive Technology for Students with Reading and Writing Disabilities, Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The difficulty in incorporating AI and VR technologies can be explained through inadequate training teachers have received regarding utilisation of new technologies [50,54], as well as teachers' own doubts and fears surrounding the use of assistive technologies in their classes and the subsequent impact on their work [54].

“which can be explained both through the inadequate training teachers have received when it comes to the utilisation of new technologies [50,54], as well as through the teachers' own doubts and fears surrounding the use of assistive technologies in their classes, and the subsequent impact they would have in their work [54].”

• cites [50] Jones, 2020, Teachers of Students With Learning Disabilities: Assistive Technology Knowledge, Perceptions, Interests, and Barriers, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [54] Juth, 2023, University Teachers’ Perceptions of Responsibility and Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education—An Experimental Philosophical Study, Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

There have been instances of students without any learning disabilities stating that the use of assistive technology constitutes an unfair advantage for students with disabilities and hinders the educational process [54].

“Finally, there have been instances of students without any learning disabilities that state that the use of assistive technology constitutes an unfair advantage for students with disabilities and hinders the educational process [54].”

• cites [54] Juth, 2023, University Teachers’ Perceptions of Responsibility and Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education—An Experimental Philosophical Study, Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Atanga et al. [50] and Lim [22] showcase constraints imposed by high costs of these systems, restricting their accessibility to more affluent schools and increasing gaps in educational experiences of students.

“Atanga et al. [50] and Lim [22] showcase the constraints that are being imposed by the high costs of these systems, restricting their accessibility to more affluent schools and increasing gaps in the educational experiences of students.”

• cites [50] Jones, 2020, Teachers of Students With Learning Disabilities: Assistive Technology Knowledge, Perceptions, Interests, and Barriers, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [22] Lim, 2020, The Capabilities Approach to Inclusive Education: Re-Envisioning the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act’s Least Restrictive Environment, Disabil. Soc. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Coughlan et al. [51] highlight the importance of personalised and detailed information from students to ensure AI and VR technologies can truly prove inclusive and effective rather than promoting their direct benefits.

“On the other hand, Coughlan et al. [51] highlight the importance of personalised and detailed information from students to ensure AI and VR technologies can truly prove inclusive and effective rather than promoting their direct benefits.”

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

VR is of great benefit to students with intellectual disabilities as it promotes social interaction, but its high cost is a major obstacle [55].

“While VR is of great benefit to students with intellectual disabilities as it promotes social interaction, its high cost is a major obstacle [55].”

• cites [55] Barrio, 2020, Virtual Reality Exercise Games for High School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

While AI may increase engagement and reduce boredom among learners with intellectual disabilities, it has not been proven to make a significant difference in achievement [58].

“Furthermore, while AI may increase engagement and reduce boredom among learners with intellectual disabilities, it has not been proven to make a significant difference in achievement [58].”

• cites [58] Brown, 2020, An Evaluation of an Adaptive Learning System Based on Multimodal Affect Recognition for Learners with Intellectual Disabilities, Br. J. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The limited educational materials available in AI environments present a significant challenge, according to Standen et al. [58].

“The limited educational materials available in AI environments also present a significant challenge, according to Standen et al. [58].”

• cites [58] Brown, 2020, An Evaluation of an Adaptive Learning System Based on Multimodal Affect Recognition for Learners with Intellectual Disabilities, Br. J. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

McMahon et al. [55] and Kavanagh et al. [69] have argued that widespread utilisation of AI and VR is hindered by their high costs.

“As McMahon et al. [55] and Kavanagh et al. [69] have argued, their widespread utilisation is being hindered by their high costs.”

• cites [55] Barrio, 2020, Virtual Reality Exercise Games for High School Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, J. Spec. Educ. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [69] Kavanagh, 2017, A Systematic Review of Virtual Reality in Education, Themes Sci. Technol. Educ.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Table 5 provides a detailed overview of how AI supports different disabilities, such as providing tailored support for complex tasks for students with neurological disabilities, but also highlights limitations, such as the difficulty of AI to account for the variability of these conditions [51,53].

“For example, Table 5 provides a detailed overview of how AI supports different disabilities, such as providing tailored support for complex tasks for students with neurological disabilities, but also highlights limitations, such as the difficulty of AI to account for the variability of these conditions [51,53].”

• cites [51] Iniesto, 2024, Analysing Disability Descriptions and Student Suggestions as a Foundation to Overcome Barriers to Learning, J. Interact. Media Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [53] *Lister, K., Coughlan, T., Kenny, I., Tudor, R., and Iniesto, F. (2021). Taylor, the Disability Disclosure Virtual Assistant: A Case Study of Participatory Research with Disabled Students. Educ. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The review predominantly features cross-sectional studies providing a snapshot of AI and VR's impact at a single point.

“Additionally, the review predominantly features cross-sectional studies providing a snapshot of AI and VR's impact at a single point.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI and VR technologies offer immersive environments.

“These technologies offer personalised learning experiences, immersive environments and the ability to tailor educational content to individual needs, enabling a more inclusive and engaging learning experience.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI and VR in education raise ethical concerns including data privacy and algorithmic bias.

“Ethical considerations, including data privacy and algorithmic bias, require careful management to ensure equitable access and avoid exacerbating existing educational disparities.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI and VR technologies offer personalised learning experiences.

“These technologies offer personalised learning experiences, immersive environments and the ability to tailor educational content to individual needs, enabling a more inclusive and engaging learning experience.”

May combine two claims.

VR technologies provide students with immersive, multisensory tools that assist the learning experience of students and enhance their comprehension and engagement.

“VR technologies provide students with immersive, multisensory tools that assist the learning experience of students and enhance their comprehension and engagement.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI and VR technologies have the ability to tailor educational content to individual needs.

“These technologies offer personalised learning experiences, immersive environments and the ability to tailor educational content to individual needs, enabling a more inclusive and engaging learning experience.”

May combine two claims.

AI-driven chatbots have been demonstrated to offer personalised support, catering to the needs of students with learning and cognitive difficulties, and improving their learning experience and outcomes [52].

“Similarly, AI-driven chatbots have been demonstrated to offer personalised support, catering to the needs of students with learning and cognitive difficulties, and improving their learning experience and outcomes [52].”

• cites [52] Chen, 2022, Supporting Inclusive Learning Using Chatbots? A Chatbot-Led Interview Study, J. Inf. Syst. Educ.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

They emphasise the importance of involving disabled students to achieve the creation of accessible and effective AI technologies.

“They emphasise the importance of involving disabled students to achieve the creation of accessible and effective AI technologies.”

• cites [53] *Lister, K., Coughlan, T., Kenny, I., Tudor, R., and Iniesto, F. (2021). Taylor, the Disability Disclosure Virtual Assistant: A Case Study of Participatory Research with Disabled Students. Educ. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

As demonstrated by Page et al. [21], alternative input methods, such as eye-tracking and voice commands, can effectively integrate students with physical impairments in the learning process and enhance their engagement.

“As demonstrated by Page et al. [21], alternative input methods, such as eye-tracking and voice commands, can effectively integrate students with physical impairments in the learning process and enhance their engagement.”

• cites [21] Page, 2023, Including Students with Disabilities in Innovative Learning Environments: A Model for Inclusive Practices, Int. J. Incl. Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lister et al. [53] prioritise the long-term equity of AI to ensure that the specific needs and concerns of students are met.

“Furthermore, Lister et al. [53] prioritise the long-term equity of AI to ensure that the specific needs and concerns of students are met.”

• cites [53] *Lister, K., Coughlan, T., Kenny, I., Tudor, R., and Iniesto, F. (2021). Taylor, the Disability Disclosure Virtual Assistant: A Case Study of Participatory Research with Disabled Students. Educ. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Challenges to AI and VR in education include high costs, technical limitations, and insufficient teacher preparation.

“Despite their promising possibilities, challenges such as high costs, technical limitations and insufficient teacher preparation need to be addressed in order to fully exploit the potential of AI and VR in education.”

May combine two claims.

Most studies were conducted in high-income countries where resources facilitate advanced technology use in education.

“Most studies were conducted in high-income countries where resources facilitate advanced technology use in education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The classification of disabilities was based on the descriptions of disabilities included in CRPD [1].

“The classification of disabilities was based on the descriptions of disabilities included in CRPD [1].”

• cites [1] Binder, C., Nowak, M., Hofbauer, J.A., and Janig, P. (2022). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Elgar Encyclopedia of Human Rights, Edward Elgar Publishing. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The systematic review protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework.

“The protocol of the systematic review was registered on the Open Science Framework (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/WA6XH, accessed on 22 April 2024 and updated on 18 October 2024) to ensure transparency and reproducibility of the review process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Any discrepancies or disagreements in data extraction were resolved through discussion between reviewers until consensus was reached.

“Any discrepancies or disagreements were resolved through discussion between the reviewers, until consensus was reached.”

May combine two claims.

VR offers immersive, multi-sensory environments that promote experiential learning.

“AI-driven adaptive systems can dynamically tailor learning experiences to individual needs, while VR offers immersive, multi-sensory environments that promote experiential learning.”

• Also stated in: § 1.2. The Potential of AI and VR in Inclusive Education · plain

  “VR technologies provide immersive learning experiences and present real-world scenarios [38].”

• cites [38] Mitsea, E., Drigas, A., and Skianis, C. (2023). VR Gaming for Meta-Skills Training in Special Education: The Role of Metacognition, Motivations, and Emotional Intelligence. Educ. Sci., 13. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The variety of study designs allows for a more comprehensive, thorough and multidimensional examination of the benefits, disadvantages and challenges linked with AI, VR and their utilisation in educational processes for students with disabilities.

“This variety of study designs allows for a more comprehensive, thorough and multidimensional examination of the benefits, disadvantages and challenges that are linked with AI, VR and their utilisation in the educational processes for students with disabilities.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A ten-question checklist was used to assess the quality of all included articles based on three broad sections.

“To evaluate the quality of the studies, a checklist [49] consisting of ten questions was used to assess all the included articles based on three broad sections (Section A:”

• cites [49] Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (2018). CASP Qualitative Studies Checklist, CASP.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A standardised data extraction form was used, and its components were reviewed and accepted by every member of the research team in collaboration with three independent information search experts.

“For the extraction and systemisation of the data useful for this systematic review, a standardised extraction form was used, and the components were reviewed and accepted by every member of the research team, in collaboration with three independent information search experts.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Each study was assigned a quality rating of high, medium or low, and higher quality studies were weighted more heavily in the analysis.

“For every study a quality rating of high, medium or low, depending on how sound its methodology was according to recognised scientific standards and whether it answered any of the existing research questions.”

• Also stated in: § 3.4. Quality Assessment · plain

  “Higher quality studies were weighted more heavily in the analysis and lower quality studies were interpreted with caution, particularly regarding their potential impact on the robustness of the overall conclusions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI and VR systems foster a sense of belonging among diverse student groups through social interaction and collaboration.

“Furthermore, AI and VR systems not only play a crucial role in enhancing the academic achievements of students with disabilities, but they also foster a sense of belonging through the promotion of social interaction and collaboration among diverse student groups”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Each included article was evaluated by one reviewer, and the results were reviewed by two additional researchers, with discrepancies resolved through discussion.

“Each article was evaluated by one reviewer, and the results were subsequently reviewed by two additional researchers.Any discrepancies in the assessment were resolved through discussion to ensure reliability.”

May combine two claims.

The literature is dispersed in terms of countries, with a strong emphasis on studies conducted in Europe.

“While the literature proves to be dispersed in terms of countries, there is a strong emphasis on studies conducted in Europe.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The review followed the PRISMA recommendations.

“To be more specific, for this review, the recommendations of the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework [45] were followed.”

• cites [45] Page, 2021, The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews, BMJ sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The objective of personalised education aligns with the principles of Universal Design Learning (UDL) [63] which endorse a variety of means of expression, representation, and engagement.

“The objective of personalised education aligns with the principles of Universal Design Learning (UDL) [63] which endorse a variety of means of expression, representation, and engagement.”

• cites [63] Almeqdad, 2023, The Effectiveness of Universal Design for Learning: A Systematic Review of the Literature and Meta-Analysis, Cogent. Educ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Srinivasa et al. [70] argue that for under-resourced educational institutions to access this type of technology, public-private partnerships or a substantial investment should be made.

“Srinivasa et al. [70], having a similar approach, argue that for under-resourced educational institutions to access this type of technology, publicprivate partnerships or a substantial investment should be made.”

• cites [70] Srinivasa, K.G., Kurni, M., and Saritha, K. (2022). Harnessing the Power of AI to Education. Learning, Teaching, and Assessment Methods for Contemporary Learners: Pedagogy for the Digital Generation, Springer Nature. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

AI implementation can lead to the appearance and reinforcement of biases and social hierarchies, especially against marginalised student groups, as Zajko [68] highlights.

“However, AI should be carefully implemented and continuously monitored in order to prevent the appearance and reinforcement of biases and social hierarchies, especially against marginalised student groups, as Zajko [68] highlights.”

• cites [68] Zajko, 2021, Conservative AI and Social Inequality: Conceptualizing Alternatives to Bias through Social Theory, AI Soc. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

AI-powered tools such as virtual agents, chatbots and collaborative platforms enable peers to participate in teamwork by encouraging equal participation and supporting personalised interactions through adaptive feedback, creating a more inclusive learning atmosphere.

“AI-powered tools such as virtual agents, chatbots and collaborative platforms enable peers to participate in teamwork by encouraging equal participation and supporting personalised interactions through adaptive feedback, creating a more inclusive learning atmosphere.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Interactive environments provided by AI systems can facilitate collaboration and enable constructive social interactions between peers, thus enhancing social integration and reducing social isolation.

“It is argued that interactive environments provided by AI systems can facilitate collaboration and enable constructive social interactions between peers, thus enhancing social integration and reducing social isolation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Brewer [7] and Knox et al. [61] acknowledge substantial educational benefits of AI and VR technologies, but advocate for inclusion of safeguards against misuse and bias, to mitigate inequalities and reinforce a more equitable learning environment.

“Brewer [7] and Knox et al. [61] acknowledge the substantial educational benefits that AI and VR technologies provide; however, they advocate for the inclusion of safeguards against misuse and bias, to mitigate inequalities and reinforce a more equitable learning environment.”

• cites [7] Brewer, J. (2018, January 8). Exploring Paths to a More Accessible Digital Future. Proceedings of the 20th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility, Galway, Ireland. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [61] Knox, 2020, Machine Behaviourism: Future Visions of ‘Learnification’ and ‘Datafication’ across Humans and Digital Technologies, Learn. Media Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The findings from the 10 studies included in this systematic review, alongside recent research, highlight the methods and strategies in which AI and VR technologies are redefining the educational environment for students with disabilities, while also bringing to the forefront significant limitations and challenges that currently exist.

“The findings from the 10 studies included in this systematic review, alongside recent research, highlight the methods and strategies in which AI and VR technologies are redefining the educational environment for students with disabilities, while also bringing to the forefront significant limitations and challenges that currently exist.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hocine and Sehaba [62] focused on showcasing assistive technologies' capacity to cultivate innovative and adaptive learning settings that can decisively transform educational experiences of students, through real-time data processing features which allow adjustment of material based on needs of each individual student.

“This argument is further supported by the work of Hocine and Sehaba [62], who focused their attention on showcasing the assistive technologies' capacity to cultivate innovative and adaptive learning settings that can decisively transform the educational experiences of students, through their real-time data processing features which allow for the adjustment of material based on the needs of each”

• cites [62] Hocine, 2024, A Systematic Review of Online Personalized Systems for the Autonomous Learning of People with Cognitive Disabilities, Hum. Comput. Interact. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent literature has tried to explore the capacity of AI-driven assistive technologies to foster social inclusion for students with disabilities [5,67].

“Recent literature has tried to explore the capacity of AI-driven assistive technologies to foster social inclusion for students with disabilities [5,67].”

• cites [5] Dalton, 2019, Inclusion, Universal Design and Universal Design for Learning in Higher Education: South Africa and the United States, Afr. J. Disabil. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [67] Almufareh, 2024, A Conceptual Model for Inclusive Technology: Advancing Disability Inclusion through Artificial Intelligence, J. Disabil. Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

AI allows teachers and instructors to focus more on pedagogical interventions while ensuring that content is personalised to individual student needs in real time.

“This allows teachers and instructors to focus more on pedagogical interventions while ensuring that content is personalised to individual student needs in real time.”

May combine two claims.

The availability of technical, human, and financial resources plays an important role in the effectiveness of these systems, notwithstanding their notable benefits in terms of accessibility, personalisation and engagement.

“The availability of technical, human, and financial resources keeps playing an important role in the effectiveness of these systems, notwithstanding their notable benefits in terms of accessibility, personalisation and engagement.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The review's inclusion criteria prioritised studies published in high-impact, peer-reviewed Q1 and Q2 journals that provided empirical evidence of technologies demonstrating significant impact in supporting students with disabilities.

“This decision was based on the inclusion criteria, which prioritised studies published in high-impact, peer-reviewed Q1 and Q2 journals that provided empirical evidence of technologies demonstrating significant impact in supporting students with disabilities.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

As there are few studies that specifically address AI and VR in the context of disability, a general approach was taken to provide an initial overview.

“As there are few studies that specifically address AI and VR in the context of disability, a general approach was taken to provide an initial overview.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Addressing the challenges identified and harnessing the potential of AI and VR can make educational environments more inclusive and accessible, enabling students with disabilities to reach their full potential.

“By addressing the challenges identified and harnessing the potential of these new technologies, educational environments can become more inclusive and accessible, enabling students with disabilities to reach their full potential.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As Mielniczuk [72] argues, longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the stability and long-term benefits or drawbacks of educational interventions.

“As Mielniczuk [72] argues, longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the stability and long-term benefits or drawbacks of educational interventions.”

• cites [72] Mielniczuk, 2023, Call for New Measures Suitable for Intensive Longitudinal Studies: Ideas and Suggestions, New Ideas Psychol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Longitudinal studies tracking long-term effects are lacking but critical for understanding the sustained impact on learning outcomes.

“Longitudinal studies tracking long-term effects are lacking but critical for understanding the sustained impact on learning outcomes.”

May combine two claims.

This review focused solely on peer-reviewed journal articles, excluding potentially valuable grey literature and non-English studies.

“It focused solely on peer-reviewed journal articles, excluding potentially valuable grey literature and non-English studies.”

May combine two claims.

Due to the complex nature of certain VR environments, when it comes to students with severe sensory impairments, the integration of additional assistive systems is necessitated to ensure full accessibility, which may pose an additional challenge to the implementation of these tools.

“However, due to the complex nature of certain VR environments, when it comes to students with severe sensory impairments, the integration of additional assistive systems is necessitated to ensure full accessibility, which may pose an additional challenge to the implementation of these tools.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Technology in education must be used to empower students rather than reinforce existing hierarchies or inequalities.

“As Friere [75] argues, technology in education must be used to empower students rather than reinforce existing hierarchies or inequalities.”

• cites Friere [75]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Without adequate preparation and support, teachers and educators may struggle to effectively incorporate AI and VR tools, potentially limiting their impact on students with disabilities.

“Without adequate preparation and support, both teachers and educators may struggle to effectively incorporate AI and VR tools, potentially limiting their impact on students with disabilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Although this provides a useful initial overview, an insight into specific technologies for each type of disability would likely provide better and more direct insights.

“Although this provides a useful initial overview, an insight into specific technologies for each type of disability would likely provide better and more direct insights.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The focus on peer-reviewed journals indexed in Q1 and Q2 of the SCOPUS database may have also excluded valuable insights from books, conferences, or reports on emerging AI and VR trends.

“The focus on peer-reviewed journals indexed in Q1 and Q2 of the SCOPUS database may have also excluded valuable insights from books, conferences, or reports on emerging AI and VR trends.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Another limitation is that the scope of this study is broad and includes multiple disabilities and technologies.

“Another limitation is that the scope of this study is broad and includes multiple disabilities and technologies.”

May combine two claims.

The selected studies analysed in this systematic review highlight the potential of AI and VR systems to address the diverse needs of students with sensory, physical, cognitive, and social/emotional disabilities, even though their effectiveness is highly contingent on the methods and strategies employed for their implementation and integration in the educational environment.

“The selected studies analysed in this systematic review highlight the potential of these systems to address the diverse needs of students with sensory, physical, cognitive, and social/emotional disabilities, even though their effectiveness is highly contingent on the methods and strategies employed for their implementation and integration in the educational environment.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

This may have overlooked important research from diverse cultural contexts.

“This may have overlooked important research from diverse cultural contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Cultural and linguistic differences in conceptualising and addressing disabilities in education could offer valuable insights not captured here.

“Cultural and linguistic differences in conceptualising and addressing disabilities in education could offer valuable insights not captured here.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Teachers' and educators' perspectives play an important part in the successful implementation of AI and VR in education.

“Moreover, the perspectives of teachers and educators, which play an important part in the successful implementation of AI and VR in education have not been comprehensively explored in this review.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

XR and AR have promising potential, especially in enhancing visual and contextual learning by overlaying digital content onto the physical world.

“While XR and AR have promising potential, especially in enhancing visual and contextual learning by overlaying digital content onto the physical world, their current application in fully immersive educational experiences for students with disabilities is relatively limited compared to AI and VR.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The current application of XR and AR in fully immersive educational experiences for students with disabilities is relatively limited compared to AI and VR.

“While XR and AR have promising potential, especially in enhancing visual and contextual learning by overlaying digital content onto the physical world, their current application in fully immersive educational experiences for students with disabilities is relatively limited compared to AI and VR.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

This review supports constructivist and experiential learning theories by demonstrating how AI and VR can create more engaging and personalised learning experiences.

“Theoretically, this review supports constructivist and experiential learning theories by demonstrating how AI and VR can create more engaging and personalised learning experiences.”

May combine two claims.

The review included studies focused on AI and VR for inclusive education of students with disabilities, with samples across all educational levels, empirical designs, written in English, published from 2018.

“focused on the use of AI, and VR technologies in relation to inclusive education for students with disabilities; (b) involved samples of students with disabilities across all educational levels (i.e., primary, secondary, higher education); (c) based on empirical quantitative, qualitative, or mixedmethods research designs; (d) written in English; and (e) published as of 2018 to reflect recent advan”

• cites [47] Trust, 2023, Editorial: ChatGPT: Challenges, Opportunities, and Implications for Teacher Education, Contemp. Issues Technol. Teach. Educ.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Involving professionals such as psychologists, educators and doctors in the development of AI systems for students with disabilities can improve their effectiveness and take into account the different needs of students with disabilities.

“Involving professionals such as psychologists, educators and doctors in the development of these systems can improve their effectiveness and take into account the different needs of students with disabilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This serves as a broader area of concern in the literature about the realistic potential of AI to diminish creativity and reduce human agency in the learning process.

“This serves as a broader area of concern in the literature about the realistic potential of AI to diminish creativity and reduce human agency in the learning process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Integrating AI and VR technologies necessitates a shift in teaching strategies, emphasising personalised instruction and greater reliance on technology-mediated learning environments.

“From a practical standpoint, integrating AI and VR technologies necessitates a shift in teaching strategies, emphasising personalised instruction and greater reliance on technology-mediated learning environments.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The review excluded studies without focus on AI and VR, those focusing on typically developing students, theoretical/conceptual studies, non-English, non-Q1/Q2, and pre-2018.

“Studies were excluded for the following reasons: (a) the absence of a focus on AI and VR technologies in relation to inclusive education for students with disabilities; (b) the exclusive focus on typically developing students; (c) theoretical and conceptual studies without primary empirical research; (d) the use of language other than English; (e) papers not published in peer-reviewed journals”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Effective inclusion of AI and VR technologies requires comprehensive teacher/educator training and supportive institutional frameworks.

“The effective inclusion of AI and VR technologies requires comprehensive teacher/ educator training and supportive institutional frameworks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The use of AI and VR technologies is in line with the objectives of the CRPD, which promotes inclusive education and provides equitable learning opportunities for all students regardless of their background and abilities.

“The use of AI and VR technologies is in line with the objectives of the CRPD, which promotes inclusive education and provides equitable learning opportunities for all students regardless of their background and abilities.”