Biodegradable and Petroleum-Based Microplastics Do Not Differ in Their Ingestion and Excretion but in Their Biological Effects in a Freshwater Invertebrate Gammarus fossarum
Open accessAbstract
Research on the uptake and effects of bioplastics by aquatic organisms is still in its infancy. Here, we aim to advance the field by comparing uptake and effects of microplastic particles (MPP) of a biodegradable bioMPP (polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)) and petroleum-based MPP (polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)) in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus fossarum. Ingestion of both MPP in different particle sizes (32–250 µm) occurred after 24 h, with highest ingestion of particles in the range 32–63 µm and almost complete egestion after 64 h. A four-week effect-experiment showed a significant decrease of the assimilation efficiency in amphipods exposed to the petroleum-based MPP from week two onwards. The petroleum-based PMMA affected assimilation efficiency significantly in contrast to the biodegradable PHB, but overall differences in direct comparison of MPP types were small. Both MPP types led to a significantly lower wet weight gain relative to the control treatments. After four weeks, differences between both MPP types and silica, used as a natural particle control, were detected. In summary, these results suggest that both MPP types provoke digestive constraints on the amphipods, which go beyond those of natural non-palatable particles. This highlights the need for more detailed research comparing environmental effects of biodegradable and petroleum-based MPP and testing those against naturally occurring particle loads.
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Freshwater species take up microplastics from sediments, and the ingestion capacity of freshwater invertebrates varies with feeding type.
“Previous studies have indeed demonstrated that microplastics are taken up from sediments by freshwater species10−15 and that the capacity of freshwater invertebrates to ingest microplastics depends on their feeding type.15”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
The Methods (section 2.4) describe microplastics sinking to the bottom of experimental beakers, where Gammarus fossarum ingested them; the study does not demonstrate uptake from natural sediments. The Discussion (sections 4.1 and 4.4) identifies the amphipods as shredders that readily ingest certain particle sizes, but it does not compare invertebrates with different feeding types or establish that ingestion capacity depends on feeding type. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBased on excretion studies with other freshwater amphipods, G. pulex is expected to completely depurate if given enough time and if ingestion stops.
“Based on microplastic excretion studies performed with other freshwater amphipods exposed to different microplastic types,11,12G. pulex is expected to be able to completely depurate if enough time is given and if the ingestion of particles concludes.”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
Methods §2.5.1 describes transferring G. fossarum to microplastic-free beakers, and Results §3.1 reports substantial excretion over 64 hours. The study did not test G. pulex or establish complete depuration: some particles remained in G. fossarum guts at 64 hours. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGrowth reduction of G. pulex was a sublethal effect caused by reduced food assimilation due to PS microplastic ingestion and by gut blockage from longer excretion time.
“our results indicate that growth reduction of G. pulex was a sublethal effect caused by a lower ability of these organisms to assimilate food due to the ingestion of PS microplastics,11,12 as well as by the gut blockage by these particles due to a longer excretion time needed to depurate their gut.11”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
The Results (§3.2) report reduced assimilation efficiency and wet-weight gain, and the Discussion (§§4.2, 4.6) proposes prolonged gut retention and possible obstruction as explanations. But this paper studied G. fossarum exposed to PMMA and PHB, not G. pulex exposed to PS; it also presents gut obstruction as a possibility rather than an established cause. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Gammarus fossarum, microplastic uptake was linked to reduced growth after exposure to PMMA and PHB particles.
“Moreover, this uptake was related to a decrease in the growth of Gammarus fossarum exposed to poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) microplastics.12”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
Chronic exposure of G. fossarum to PMMA and PHB microplastics in water reduced growth at 100,000 particles per individual.
“However, chronic exposure of a closely related freshwater shrimp, G. fossarum, to poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) microplastics in water caused a decrease in growth at a concentration of 100 000 microplastics particles per individual with a similar size range.12”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
Growth of G. fossarum was reduced after 28-day exposure to PMMA and PHB particles, while its feeding rate was unaffected.
“Similarly, while the growth of G. fossarum was reduced after a 28 day exposure to PMMA and PHB particles, the feeding rate was also unaffected.12”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
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- Authors
- Straub, S., Hirsch, P. E., & Burkhardt-Holm, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Basel (CH)
- Man-Society-Environment (Program MGU), Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Vesalgasse 1, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
- ORCID
- Hirsch, Philipp E.
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2017-07-13
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 774
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5551212
- OpenAlex
- W2734707622
- Cited by
- 209
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 5.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- edoc (University of Basel) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- microplastics, biodegradable microplastics, polyhydroxybutyrate, poly(methyl methacrylate), Gammarus fossarum, Amphipoda, assimilation efficiency, particle size, freshwater invertebrates, bioaccumulation
- MeSH terms
- Polyhydroxybutyrates, Animals, Digestion, Eating, Fresh Water, Hydroxybutyrates, Particle Size, Petroleum, Polyesters, Polymethyl Methacrylate, Amphipoda
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