Cited by 275Muscle Physiology and DisordersMetabolism, Diabetes, and CancerMuscle metabolism and nutrition

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The Role of AMPK in the Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Size, Hypertrophy, and Regeneration

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Thomson, David M.·2018·International Journal of Molecular Sciences

DOI 10.3390/ijms19103125PMC PMC6212977

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Abstract

AMPK (5’-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase) is heavily involved in skeletal muscle metabolic control through its regulation of many downstream targets. Because of their effects on anabolic and catabolic cellular processes, AMPK plays an important role in the control of skeletal muscle development and growth. In this review, the effects of AMPK signaling, and those of its upstream activator, liver kinase B1 (LKB1), on skeletal muscle growth and atrophy are reviewed. The effect of AMPK activity on satellite cell-mediated muscle growth and regeneration after injury is also reviewed. Together, the current data indicate that AMPK does play an important role in regulating muscle mass and regeneration, with AMPKα1 playing a prominent role in stimulating anabolism and in regulating satellite cell dynamics during regeneration, and AMPKα2 playing a potentially more important role in regulating muscle degradation during atrophy.

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Figure 1 Proposed regulation of skeletal muscle size by 5’-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Energy stress (decreased ATP/AMP ratio; as in moderately intensive exercise) predominantly activates AMPKα2 via liver kinase B1 (LKB1), while AMPKα1 is only activated by highly-intense or prolonged exercise. Basal AMPKα1 content and activity is also increased by long-term endurance training, perhaps via Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CamKK) action, or other AMPK kinases. AMPKα2 stimulates catabolic processes by increasing Foxo3a, Atrogin-1 and MuRF-1 expression/activity and increasing autophagy, leading, under certain circumstance, to muscle atrophy, but has little effect on protein anabolism. AMPKα1 impairs mTOR signaling, slows protein synthesis, and blocks hypertrophy. Hypertrophic loading (i.e., resistance exercise) stimulates mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, protein synthesis, and hypertrophy, but also activates AMPKα1 independent of LKB1 (perhaps via CamKK or other means), limiting the hypertrophic growth. ↑: increase expression or activity; ↓: decreased expression or activity.CC BY · PubMed Central

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“Accumulating evidence suggests that the AMPK‐mTOR pathway might act as the primary signal axis for autophagy.(37,38) Our results show that AdipoRon promoted the phosphorylation of the AMPK protein and then inhibited the phosphorylation of mTOR protein in chondrocytes.”
Background
Dietary short-term supplementation of grape seed proanthocyanidin extract improves pork quality and promotes skeletal muscle fiber type conversion in finishing pigs
Li, Y., Feng, Y., Chen, X., He, J., Luo, Y., Yu, B., Chen, D., & Huang, Z. (2024) · Meat Science · doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2024.109436 · Cited by 23
Reciprocal Association between the Apical Junctional Complex and AMPK: A Promising Therapeutic Target for Epithelial/Endothelial Barrier Function?
Tsukita, K., Yano, T., Tamura, A., & Tsukita, S. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20236012 · Cited by 25
The Roles of AMPK in Revascularization
Chen, M.-H., & Fu, Q.-M. (2020) · Cardiology Research and Practice · doi:10.1155/2020/4028635 · Cited by 22
“Zhenkun Lou et al. have found that AMPKα1 or AMPKα2 ubiquitination blocks its phosphorylation by LKB1, which could be rescued by the deubiquitinase ubiquitin specific peptidase 10 (USP10) [54].”
BackgroundInfluential
MiRNA Profiling in Pectoral Muscle Throughout Pre- to Post-Natal Stages of Chicken Development
Chen, M., Zhang, S., Xu, Z., Gao, J., Mishra, S. K., Zhu, Q., Zhao, X., Wang, Y., Yin, H., Fan, X., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2020.00570 · Cited by 22
“These pathways had been reported to be involved in muscle growth and development (Schiaffino et al., 2013; Thomson, 2018; Du et al., 2019).”
Background
High-Frequency Stimulation on Skeletal Muscle Maintenance in Female Cachectic Mice
Sato, S., Gao, S., Puppa, M. J., Kostek, M., Wilson, L., & Carson, J. (2019) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001991 · Cited by 15
Elevated CO2 Levels Delay Skeletal Muscle Repair by Increasing Fatty Acid Oxidation
Ceco, E., Celli, D. A., Weinberg, S. E., Shigemura, M., Welch, L. C., Volpe, L., Chandel, N. S., Bharat, A., Lecuona, E., & Sznajder, J. I. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.630910 · Cited by 20
“With regards to muscle regeneration, AMPKα1 plays a prominent role in regulating satellite cell dynamics, with AMPKα2 playing a potentially more important role in regulating muscle degradation during atrophy (Thomson, 2018).”
Background
Wheel running improves fasting‐induced AMPK signaling in skeletal muscle from tumor‐bearing mice
Fix, D. K., Counts, B. R., Smuder, A. J., Sarzynski, M. A., Koh, H., & Carson, J. A. (2021) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14924 · Cited by 19
“Nevertheless, many different catabolic conditions have investigated skeletal muscle atrophy regulation by metabolic disruptions that induce AMPK signaling (Bujak et al., 2015; Di Magno et al., 2016; Nakashima & Yakabe, 2007; Sanchez, Candau, et al., 2012; Sanchez, Csibi, et al., 2012; Thomson, 2018).”
Background
From skeletal muscle damage and regeneration to the hypertrophy induced by exercise: what is the role of different macrophage subsets?
Minari, A. L. A., & dos Santos, R. V. T. (2021) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00038.2021 · Cited by 21
Differential expression patterns of genes associated with metabolisms, muscle growth and repair in Pectoralis major muscles of fast- and medium-growing chickens
Malila, Y., Thanatsang, K. V., Sanpinit, P., Arayamethakorn, S., Soglia, F., Zappaterra, M., Bordini, M., Sirri, F., Rungrassamee, W., Davoli, R., et al. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275160 · Cited by 21
“In addition, AMPK plays a key role in regulating skeletal muscle growth, development, and repair [21].”
Background
Pharmacological and exercise‐induced activation of AMPK as emerging therapies for myotonic dystrophy type 1 patients
Ravel‐Chapuis, A., Duchesne, É., & Jasmin, B. J. (2022) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp282725 · Cited by 19
“This last element further obscures the investigation of AMPK in the context of exercise because the molecular responses to different exercise modalities are less clear in humans than in animals (Thomson, 2018).”
Background
Adiponectin in Myopathies
Gamberi, T., Magherini, F., & Fiaschi, T. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20071544 · Cited by 18
“Full AMPK activation occurs through both phosphorylation by liver kinase B1 (LKB1) and AMP binding [8].”
Background
Transient changes to metabolic homeostasis initiate mitochondrial adaptation to endurance exercise
Dent, J. R., Stocks, B., Campelj, D. G., & Philp, A. (2022) · Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.03.022 · Cited by 19
High-Molecular-Weight Polyphenol-Rich Fraction of Black Tea Does Not Prevent Atrophy by Unloading, But Promotes Soleus Muscle Mass Recovery from Atrophy in Mice
Aoki, Y., Ozawa, T., Numata, O., & Takemasa, T. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11092131 · Cited by 18
“Additionally, dominant-negative Ampk transgenic mice in which a dominant-negative Ampkα2 subunit was overexpressed under the muscle creatine kinase promoter (expressed in heart and skeletal muscle) showed that EDL muscles tended to be larger than in wild-type mice, suggesting that Ampk might negatively regulate basal…”
Background
Transcriptome-wide analysis of RNA m6A methylation regulation of muscle development in Queshan Black pigs
Dou, Y., Wei, Y., Zhang, Z., Li, C., Song, C., Liu, Y., Qi, K., Li, X., Li, X., Qiao, R., et al. (2023) · BMC Genomics · doi:10.1186/s12864-023-09346-w · Cited by 17
“Among them, the AMPK signaling pathway is an important signaling pathway of energy metabolism that is heavily involved in skeletal muscle metabolic processes; controls skeletal muscle growth and development by regulating many downstream targets; is related to myocyte energy metabolism, protein synthesis, and catabolis…”
Background
AMPK/mTOR balance during exercise: implications for insulin resistance in aging muscle
Mingzheng, X., & You, W. (2025) · Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1007/s11010-025-05362-4 · Cited by 22
“As a result of the energetic challenge, intracellular AMP/ATP and ADP/ATP ratios increase, serving as crucial triggers for AMPK activation [39].”
Effect of Age and Lipoperoxidation in Rat and Human Adipose Tissue-Derived Stem Cells
Muñoz, M., Argüelles, S., Marotta, F., Barbagallo, M., Cano, M., & Ayala, A. (2020) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2020/6473279 · Cited by 17
“Recent studies have shown that AMPK activation, in response to various stimuli, such as exercise and muscle contraction, gradually declines during aging [77].”
LKB1 signaling is altered in skeletal muscle of a Duchenne muscular dystrophy mouse model
Boccanegra, B., Mantuano, P., Conte, E., Cerchiara, A. G., Tulimiero, L., Quarta, R., Caputo, E., Sanarica, F., Forino, M., Spadotto, V., et al. (2023) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.049930 · Cited by 16
“Nonetheless, chronic activation in basal conditions may have deleterious effects on muscle homeostasis, inhibiting muscle growth and stimulating pro-atrophic pathways (Thomson, 2018).”
Beta-hydroxybutyric acid attenuates neuronal damage in epileptic mice
Guo, Q.-H., Liu, S., Wang, S., Wu, M., Li, Z., & Wang, Y. (2019) · Acta Histochemica · doi:10.1016/j.acthis.2019.03.009 · Cited by 16
Hypertrophy of Rat Skeletal Muscle Is Associated with Increased SIRT1/Akt/mTOR/S6 and Suppressed Sestrin2/SIRT3/FOXO1 Levels
Gombos, Z., Koltai, E., Torma, F., Bakonyi, P., Kolonics, A., Aczél, D., Ditrói, T., Nagy, P., Kawamura, T., & Radak, Z. O. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22147588 · Cited by 18
“Hence, as a result of intensive investigation a lot is known about the molecular pathways that are involved in increased protein synthesis and attenuated catabolic processes, which happen to occur during the hypertrophy of skeletal muscle [6,7].”
Background
The role of CD36-Fabp4-PPARγ in skeletal muscle involves insulin resistance in intrauterine growth retardation mice with catch-up growth
Liu, J., Zhao, H., Yang, L., Wang, X., Yang, L., Xing, Y., Lv, X., Ma, H., & Song, G. (2022) · BMC Endocrine Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12902-021-00921-4 · Cited by 17
“The fatty acid synthesis can be increased by reducing the inhibitory effect of malonyl-CoA on CPT-1α oxidative metabolism [31].”
Background
Transcriptome Analysis of Differentially Expressed mRNA Related to Pigeon Muscle Development
Ding, H., Lin, Y., Zhang, T., Chen, L., Zhang, G., Wang, J., Xie, K., & Dai, G. (2021) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani11082311 · Cited by 15
“AMPK plays an important role in controlling skeletal muscle development and growth due to its effects on anabolism and catalytic cellular processes [27].”
Background
Hydrogen Sulfide Regulates Glucose Uptake in Skeletal Muscles via S-Sulfhydration of AMPK in Muscle Fiber Type-Dependent Way
Li, K., Wang, M., Wang, R., Wang, X., Jiao, H., Zhao, J., Zhou, Y., Li, H., & Lin, H. (2023) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.08.024 · Cited by 15
Epigenetics of Skeletal Muscle Atrophy
Du, J., Wu, Q., & Bae, E. J. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25158362 · Cited by 18
“The AMPK pathway is essential in skeletal muscle atrophy, as it can inhibit protein synthesis by modulating the phosphorylation of mTOR and eukaryotic initiation factor 2 [43].”
Background
Muscle atrophy and regeneration associated with behavioural loss and recovery of function after sciatic nerve crush
GrönholdtKlein, M., Altun, M., Becklén, M., Kahm, E. D., Fahlström, A., Rullman, E., & Ulfhake, B. (2019) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/apha.13335 · Cited by 15
Transcriptional Changes Involved in Atrophying Muscles during Prolonged Fasting in Rats
Ibrahim, M., Wasselin, T., Challet, É., DORSSELAER, A. V., Maho, Y. L., Raclot, T., & Bertile, F. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21175984 · Cited by 15
“AMPK generally activates catabolic factors while inactivating anabolic ones, thereby controlling energy metabolism and muscle growth or atrophy [83].”
Background
Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress and Mitophagy Activation Contribute to TNF-Dependent Impairment of Myogenesis
Chernyavskij, D. A., Pletjushkina, O. Y., Kashtanova, A. V., Galkin, I. I., Karpukhina, A. A., Chernyak, B. V., Vassetzky, Y. S., & Popova, E. N. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12030602 · Cited by 15
Mechanisms of endurance and resistance exercise in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A Narrative review
Zhao, X., Huang, F., Sun, Y., & Li, L. (2025) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2025.151731 · Cited by 14
Regulatory Role of N6-Methyladenosine in Longissimus Dorsi Development in Yak
Ma, X., La, Y., Bao, P., Chu, M., Guo, X., Wu, X., Pei, J., Ding, X., Liang, C., & Yan, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.757115 · Cited by 15
“In addition, AMPK not only plays a key regulatory role in muscle energy metabolism but also participates in the transformation of muscle fiber types (44).”
Background
Impaired regenerative capacity contributes to skeletal muscle dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Jaitovich, A. (2022) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00292.2022 · Cited by 16
Juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated genetic loci exhibit spatially constrained gene regulatory effects across multiple tissues and immune cell types
Pudjihartono, N., Ho, D., Golovina, E., Fadason, T., Kempa-Liehr, A. W., & O'Sullivan, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Autoimmunity · doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2023.103046 · Cited by 13
Different Effects of Metformin and A769662 on Sodium Iodate-Induced Cytotoxicity in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells: Distinct Actions on Mitochondrial Fission and Respiration
Chan, C.-M., Sekar, P., Huang, D.-Y., Hsu, S.-H., & Lin, W. (2020) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox9111057 · Cited by 15
Dipeptide IF and Exercise Training Attenuate Hypertension in SHR Rats by Inhibiting Fibrosis and Hypertrophy and Activating AMPKα1, SIRT1, and PGC1α
Ho, J., Baskaran, R., Wang, M.-F., Mohammedsaleh, Z. M., Yang, H., Balasubramanian, B., & Lin, W. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23158167 · Cited by 15
“In addition, swimming exercise protects mice against myocardial and liver apoptosis [18,19].”
Background
Effects of Resveratrol on Muscle Inflammation, Energy Utilisation, and Exercise Performance in an Eccentric Contraction Exercise Mouse Model
Su, L.-Y., Huang, W.-C., Kan, N., Tung, T.-H., Huynh, L. B. P., & Huang, S. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15010249 · Cited by 14
“Studies have also supported that resveratrol is involved in the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) during muscle contraction over a longer exercise period [11].”
Background
The Role of Natural Products in the Improvement of Cancer-Associated Cachexia
Han, Y., Kim, H. I., & Park, J. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24108772 · Cited by 13
“In cancer-induced cachexia, it has been reported that AMPK could play a key role in regulating energy production and consumption, and it has been suggested to contribute to the development of muscle wasting and weight loss seen in cachexia [21,83,84].”
Background
MiR‐222‐3p suppresses C2C12 myoblast proliferation and differentiation via the inhibition of IRS‐1/PI3K/Akt pathway
Wei, X., Wang, J., Sun, Y., Zhao, T., Luo, X., Lu, J., Hou, W., Yu, X., Xue, L., Yan, Y. L., et al. (2023) · Journal of Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1002/jcb.30453 · Cited by 13
Dietary creatine promotes creatine reserves, protein deposition, and myofiber hyperplasia in muscle of juvenile largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
Yu, H., He, Y., Qin, M., Wang, L., Rong, K., & Zhang, X. (2024) · Aquaculture · doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2024.740591 · Cited by 14
Fine-tuning AMPK in physiology and disease using point-mutant mouse models
Ashraf, N., & Nostrand, J. L. V. (2024) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.050798 · Cited by 14
“…muscle, AMPK facilitates glucose uptake, stimulates fatty acid β -oxidation (FAO, see Glossary, Box 2) and promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, thereby enhancing insulin sensitivity and maintaining a healthy body weight (Jørgensen et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2006; Rhein et al., 2021; Thomson, 2018).”
Background
GSDMD KNOCKOUT ALLEVIATES SEPSIS-ASSOCIATED SKELETAL MUSCLE ATROPHY BY INHIBITING IL18/AMPK SIGNALING
Zhang, Y., Li, T., Liu, Y., Wang, C., Wang, D., Xu, L., Zhao, H., Bai, X., Li, Z., & Wang, Y.-C. (2024) · Shock · doi:10.1097/shk.0000000000002430 · Cited by 13
“Muscle ring finger protein 1 (MuRF1) and F-box protein Atrogin-1 are two indicators that are commonly employed to assess skeletal muscle atrophy due to their high expression and sensitivity (3,7).”
Influential
Effects of Maca on Muscle Hypertrophy in C2C12 Skeletal Muscle Cells
Yi, D., Yoshikawa, M., Sugimoto, T., Tomoo, K., Okada, Y., & Hashimoto, T. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23126825 · Cited by 13
“AMPK greatly affects skeletal muscle development and growth [32].”
Background
Kampo formula hochu-ekki-to (Bu-Zhong-Yi-Qi-Tang, TJ-41) ameliorates muscle atrophy by modulating atrogenes and AMPK in vivo and in vitro
Yakabe, M., Hosoi, T., Sasakawa, H., Akishita, M., & Ogawa, S. (2022) · BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12906-022-03812-w · Cited by 12
“In addition, 5’ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has two kinds of effects on metabolism: the inhibition of anabolism to minimize ATP consumption and the stimulation of catabolism to stimulate ATP production [6], and it is involved in skeletal muscle metabolic control [7].”
Background
Analysis of the mechanism of skeletal muscle atrophy from the pathway of decreased protein synthesis
Chen, P., Jia, F., Wang, M., & Yang, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2025.1533394 · Cited by 17
“This inhibits the binding of elongation factors to ribosomes, resulting in decreased translation efficiency and reduced protein synthesis (Thomson, 2018) (Figure 1).”
Guanidinoacetic acid supplementation on growth performance and molecular mechanisms of lean mass gain in nursery pigs
Valini, G. A. D. C., Duarte, M. D. S., Rodrigues, G. D. A., Veroneze, R., Saraiva, A., Hausman, G. J., & Rocha, G. C. (2020) · Ciência Rural · doi:10.1590/0103-8478cr20190948 · Cited by 12
Direct or indirect regulation of muscle protein synthesis by energy status?
Moinard, C., & Fontaine, E. M. (2020) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.015 · Cited by 12

Authors: Thomson, D. M.
Affiliations: Brigham Young University (US)
Corresponding author: Thomson, David M.
ORCID: Thomson, David M.
Venue: International Journal of Molecular Sciences
Publisher: MDPI AG
Published: 2018-10-11
Volume: 19
Issue: 10
Pages: 3125
ISSN: 1422-0067 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3390/ijms19103125
PMC: PMC6212977
OpenAlex: W2896374260
Cited by: 267
References: 142
Citations by year: 2026: 29 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 1
FWCI: 1.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
dx.doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: International Journal of Molecular Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Metabolism, Diabetes, and Cancer
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
Keywords: AMPK, skeletal muscle growth, muscle hypertrophy, muscle atrophy, muscle regeneration, satellite cells, LKB1, AMPKα1, AMPKα2, muscle metabolism, myogenesis
MeSH terms: Animals, Energy Metabolism, Enzyme Activation, Humans, Hypertrophy, Organ Size, Regeneration, Wound Healing, Signal Transduction, Biomarkers, Muscle, Skeletal, Muscle Fibers, Skeletal, Muscle Development, AMP-Activated Protein Kinases

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The Role of AMPK in the Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Size, Hypertrophy, and Regeneration

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