The Chemistry of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Revisited: Outlining Their Role in Biological Macromolecules (DNA, Lipids and Proteins) and Induced Pathologies
Open accessAbstract
Living species are continuously subjected to all extrinsic forms of reactive oxidants and others that are produced endogenously. There is extensive literature on the generation and effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in biological processes, both in terms of alteration and their role in cellular signaling and regulatory pathways. Cells produce ROS as a controlled physiological process, but increasing ROS becomes pathological and leads to oxidative stress and disease. The induction of oxidative stress is an imbalance between the production of radical species and the antioxidant defense systems, which can cause damage to cellular biomolecules, including lipids, proteins and DNA. Cellular and biochemical experiments have been complemented in various ways to explain the biological chemistry of ROS oxidants. However, it is often unclear how this translates into chemical reactions involving redox changes. This review addresses this question and includes a robust mechanistic explanation of the chemical reactions of ROS and oxidative stress.
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In neurons, impaired oxidative phosphorylation leads to excessive electron leakage and ROS production, which drives lipid, protein, and DNA oxidation.
“In neurons, impaired oxidative phosphorylation leads to excessive electron leakage and ROS production, which in turn drives lipid, protein, and DNA oxidation.”
From Toward a Unified Framework in Molecular Neurobiology of Alzheimer’s Disease: Revisiting the Pathophysiological Hypotheses (2026) · cites this paper as [101]
Section 4 (page unavailable) describes electrons from the mitochondrial transport chain producing superoxide and links mitochondrial dysfunction to elevated ROS in Huntington’s disease. Sections 3–6 describe ROS damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA. The paper does not establish the claimed sequence specifically in neurons: impaired oxidative phosphorylation causing excessive electron leakage and thereby all three forms of oxidation. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOxidative injury is not an independent mechanism but a downstream manifestation of mitochondrial failure that further compromises energy metabolism and accelerates amyloid and tau pathology.
“Thus, oxidative injury is not an independent mechanism but a downstream manifestation of mitochondrial failure that further compromises energy metabolism and accelerates amyloid and tau pathology [101].”
From Toward a Unified Framework in Molecular Neurobiology of Alzheimer’s Disease: Revisiting the Pathophysiological Hypotheses (2026) · cites this paper as [101]
Section 4 (ROS Damage on DNA; page unavailable) says mtDNA mutations can increase ROS and cause oxidative damage, supporting a link from mitochondrial dysfunction to oxidative injury. But it also says long-term oxidative stress may trigger mtDNA mutations, so it does not establish oxidative injury as only a downstream manifestation. Sections 4–6 link oxidative stress with Alzheimer’s disease and amyloid-beta, but do not say it accelerates amyloid or tau pathology or further compromises energy metabolism in that disease. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPeroxynitrite is short-lived and highly reactive and confers indirect toxicity to O2•−, particularly to DNA, proteins and lipids.
“Peroxynitrite is a short-lived and highly reactive oxidant and is therefore another reaction that confers indirect toxicity to O2•−, in particular to DNA, proteins and lipids [122].”
From Superoxide Anion Chemistry—Its Role at the Core of the Innate Immunity (2023) · cites this paper as [122]
H2O2, in biochemical reactions, produces the hydroxyl radical •OH + −OH, highly reactive in the mitochondrial matrix.
“H2O2, in biochemical reactions, produces the hydroxyl radical •OH + −OH, highly reactive in the mitochondrial matrix [13].”
From The Role of Reactive Species on Innate Immunity (2022) · cites this paper as [13]
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- Authors
- Juan, C. A., Pérez de la Lastra, J. M., Plou, F. J., & Pérez-Lebeña, E.
- Affiliations
- Cinquima Institute and Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Valladolid University, Paseo de Belén, 7, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Institute of Natural Products and Agrobiology, CSIC-Spanish Research Council, Avda. Astrofísico Fco. Sánchez, 38206 La Laguna, Spain
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Sistemas de Biotecnología y Recursos Naturales, 47625 Valladolid, Spain
- Venue
- International Journal of Molecular Sciences
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-04-28
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 4642
- ISSN
- 1422-0067 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8125527
- OpenAlex
- W3157638995
- Cited by
- 2,810
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 545 · 2025: 826 · 2024: 734 · 2023: 470 · 2022: 211 · 2021: 23
- FWCI
- 37.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Molecular Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Fundación CajaCanarias (2019SP43)
- Agencia Canaria de Investigación, Innovación y Sociedad de la Información (ProID2020010134)
- Junta de Castilla y León (FEDER-VA115P17, VA149G18)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Redox biology and oxidative stress
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Biochemistry › Antioxidant Activity and Oxidative Stress
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Free Radicals and Antioxidants
- Keywords
- reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, redox chemistry, antioxidant defense, signal transduction, reaction mechanism
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Disease, DNA, DNA Damage, Humans, Mitochondria, Neutrophils, Oxidative Phosphorylation, Proteins, Lipid Peroxidation, Reactive Oxygen Species, Oxidative Stress, Pore Forming Cytotoxic Proteins
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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