Cited by 794Antifungal resistance and susceptibilityFungal Infections and StudiesFungal and yeast genetics research

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Candida albicans—The Virulence Factors and Clinical Manifestations of Infection

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Talapko, Jasminka, Juzbašić, Martina, Matijević, Tatjana, Pustijanac, Emina, Bekić, Sanja, Kotris, Ivan, Škrlec, Ivana·2021·Journal of Fungi

DOI 10.3390/jof7020079PMC PMC7912069

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Abstract

Candida albicans is a common commensal fungus that colonizes the oropharyngeal cavity, gastrointestinal and vaginal tract, and healthy individuals’ skin. In 50% of the population, C. albicans is part of the normal flora of the microbiota. The various clinical manifestations of Candida species range from localized, superficial mucocutaneous disorders to invasive diseases that involve multiple organ systems and are life-threatening. From systemic and local to hereditary and environmental, diverse factors lead to disturbances in Candida’s normal homeostasis, resulting in a transition from normal flora to pathogenic and opportunistic infections. The transition in the pathophysiology of the onset and progression of infection is also influenced by Candida’s virulence traits that lead to the development of candidiasis. Oral candidiasis has a wide range of clinical manifestations, divided into primary and secondary candidiasis. The main supply of C. albicans in the body is located in the gastrointestinal tract, and the development of infections occurs due to dysbiosis of the residential microbiota, immune dysfunction, and damage to the muco-intestinal barrier. The presence of C. albicans in the blood is associated with candidemia–invasive Candida infections. The commensal relationship exists as long as there is a balance between the host immune system and the virulence factors of C. albicans. This paper presents the virulence traits of Candida albicans and clinical manifestations of specific candidiasis.

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Synthesis of Trifluoromethylated Analogues of the Cyclic Lipopeptide Iturin A and Evaluation of their Antifungal Activity
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Thioterpenoids of the Bornane Series with Potent Activity Against Opportunistic Micromycetes
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Background
Environmental and Social Determinants Related to Candidiasis
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Cases of endophthalmitis caused by Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis identified via internal transcribed spacer deep sequencing
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BackgroundInfluential
The P-type calcium pump Spf1 regulates immune response by maintenance of the endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane contacts during Candida albicans systemic infection
Ji, Y., Chen, D., Shao, M., Liu, Z., Li, M., & Yu, Q. (2024) · Mycology: An International Journal on Fungal Biology · doi:10.1080/21501203.2024.2409299 · Cited by 3
“Candida albicans is a common fungus found in areas such as the oral cavity, digestive tract, and reproductive tract (Bai 2014; Talapko et al. 2021; Hu et al. 2024).”
Antifungal Activity Exerted by Greek Honeys and Bacteria Isolated from Them
Boutrou, I., Tsadila, C., Amoroso, C., & Mossialos, D. (2024) · Journal of Apitherapy and Nature · doi:10.35206/jan.1565205 · Cited by 3
Disinfection Strategies for Poly(methyl methacrylate): Method Sequence, Solution Concentration, and Intraoral Temperature on Antimicrobial Activity
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Histone deacetylase Hos1 promotes the homeostasis of Candida albicans cell wall and membrane and its specific inhibitor has an antifungal activity in vivo
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Virulence profile of pathogenic yeasts from snakes: Alternative ways for antifungal strategies
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Keymaram, M., Lotfali, E., Mousazadeh, M., Nikkhah, M., Raiesi, O., & Yadegari, M. (2025) · Microbial Pathogenesis · doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2025.107719 · Cited by 4
Real-time monitoring of Candida albicans biofilm growth and 4-HPA-mediated inhibition using an optoelectrochemical platform
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“This versatility allows it to cause a spectrum of infections, ranging from superficial mucosal candidiasis to life-threatening systemic dissemination, posing a significant therapeutic challenge (Kim and Sudbery 2011; Talapko et al. 2021; Sobel 2023).”
Anticandidal Effects of Ocimum basilicum and Ocimum sanctum: Unveiling in vitro and in vivo Efficacy against Systemic Candidiasis
Gupta, S., Nagar, L., Singla, M., Smriti, Singh, S. K., Gupta, G., Bhojraj, S., Syed, R. U., Alshammari, A., Alshammari, M. D., et al. (2025) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/0113816128362999250605093917 · Cited by 3
Bio-functional Mn₂O₃-carboxymethyl cellulose-L-arginine hybrid nanomaterials for targeting Candida albicans and oral cancer
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Comprehensive analysis of human keratinocyte interactions with Candida albicans and Candida parapsilosis
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“Contrarily to C. parapsilosis , C. albicans is frequently associated with cutaneous candidiasis, thus, the infection of various skin surfaces along with the mucosa of the oral cavity, gut and vagina [7,10–12].”
Basal expression of ERG11 , MDR1 and CDR1 genes in clinical isolates of Candida albicans from Ecuador: insights into azole resistance surveillance
Sánchez-Villacreses, E. M., Tapia, J. C., Cáceres-Valdiviezo, M. J., Gabriel Morey-León, G., Fernández‐Cadena, J. C., & Andrade-Molina, D. (2025) · All Life · doi:10.1080/26895293.2025.2551757 · Cited by 3
Structural Insights and Pharmaceutical Relevance of Plumbagin in Parasitic Disorders: A Comprehensive Review
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Antimicrobial and anticancer potential of soil bacterial metabolites - a comprehensive and updated review
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A case report: Severe disseminated infection caused by Strongyloides stercoralis in an immunocompromised patient by metagenomic next-generation sequencing
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Investigating the Anti-fungal Activity of Different Concentrations of Aloe vera in Candida albicans Infection under In Vitro Conditions
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“This is attributed to the suppression of local and systemic defense mechanisms (1).”
Background
Chemical Profiling, Antifungal and Anti-inflammatory Evaluations of Ethanol Extract of Zingiber officinale var. rubrum and Curcuma caesia Mixture from Riau, Sumatera Island, Indonesia
Juariah, S., Juliantari, E., Hanggara, D., Surya, A., & Endrini, S. (2024) · Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research · doi:10.26538/tjnpr/v8i1.12 · Cited by 4
Iron-Based Nanoparticles Synthesis, Characterization, and Antimicrobial Effectiveness
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Contemporary Insights Into HIV Esophagitis: Pathogenesis, Therapeutic Strategies, and Prognostic Outcomes
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Impact of Urinary Tract and Vaginal Infections on the Physical and Emotional Well-being of Women
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Bioactive potential enhancement of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) through ball-mill assisted micronization
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A cell wall-targeting urease-derived peptide as a potential antifungal agent against Candida species
Perin, A. P. A., Reuwsaat, J. C. V., Motta, H., Lopes, F. C., Grahl, M. V. C., Tavanti, A. G., Vainstein, M. H., Staats, C. C., Carlini, C. R., Ligabue‐Braun, R., et al. (2025) · Current Research in Microbial Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crmicr.2025.100399 · Cited by 3
“This may be due to the fact that at this temperature, Candida species are more likely to develop pseudohyphal structures, which enhance their infectivity and resistance to antifungal drugs (Malinovsk ´ a et al., 2023; Talapko et al., 2021).”
Anticandidal Cu(I) complexes with neocuproine and 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazine based diphenylaminomethylphosphine: Is Cu-diimine moiety a pharmacophore?
Starosta, R., de Almeida, R. F. M., Puchalska, M., Suchodolski, J., Derkacz, D., & Krasowska, A. (2023) · Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2023.112355 · Cited by 3
Candida-An emerging and re-emerging pathogen
Swaminathan, R., & Kamath, N. (2023) · IP International Journal of Medical Microbiology and Tropical Diseases · doi:10.18231/j.ijmmtd.2023.002 · Cited by 2
In Vitro Evaluation of Antifungal Activity of Synthesized Novel Zn(II) Complex with Schiff base Ligand
Meena, K. K., Serawat, K. K., & Gunsaria, R. K. (2023) · Indian Journal of Science and Technology · doi:10.17485/ijst/v16i42.369 · Cited by 2
Identification of Flo11-like Adhesin in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and the Mechanism of Small-Molecule Compounds Mediating Biofilm Formation in Yeasts
Zhang, Y., Zhang, T., & Lin, L. (2024) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms12020358 · Cited by 2
“The biofilm-forming ability of pathogenic yeast is recognized to be the virulence attribute as well as a major causal factor of antifungal resistance and refractory infection, thereby posing a great challenge in clinical scenarios [5,6].”
Background
MIG1, TUP1 and NRG1 mediated yeast to hyphal morphogenesis inhibition in Candida albicans by ganciclovir
Gavandi, T. C., Patil, S. B., Basrani, S. T., Yankanchi, S. R., Chougule, S. A., Karuppayil, S. M., & Jadhav, A. K. (2024) · Brazilian Journal of Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s42770-024-01344-8 · Cited by 2
“Transcription factors are key controlling elements in the morphological transition from yeast to a more virulent filamentation form in C. albicans [ 3 ].”
Innate immunodeficiencies: a group of primary immunodeficiencies predisposing exclusively to common diseases
Refaat, M., Oujane, C., Kholaiq, H., Aadam, Z., Errami, A., Baghad, B., Boussetta, S., Kettani, A. E., Benhsaien, I., Ailal, F., et al. (2024) · Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics · doi:10.1186/s43042-024-00604-4 · Cited by 2
Current Progression in Nanomedicine for the Treatment of Candida albicans Infections
Chopra, S., Kumar, A., Pandit, V., Kumar, P., Ankalgi, A. D., & Ashawat, M. S. (2025) · Current treatment options in infectious diseases/Current treatment options in infectious disease · doi:10.1007/s40506-025-00284-7 · Cited by 2
“The physical transformation from spore to mycelium also signifies that C. albicans has transitioned from a symbiotic to a pathogenic condition, even though pseudohyphae represent the intermediary stage of both [ 8 ].”
Impact of Clove Essential Oil on the Intestinal Flora in Mice Infected with Candida albicans
Gao, Y., Guo, Y., Chen, S., Zhang, J., Wang, J., Wang, F., Luo, J., & Yan, L. (2025) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules30112372 · Cited by 2
Candida auris clade I isolates from ear discharge in Japan demonstrated comparable virulence to invasive clade I isolates against Galleria mellonella
Oiki, S., Abe, M., Sadamoto, S., Amemiya, K., Shinohara, T., Otani, A., Koizumi, A., Umeyama, T., Makimura, K., & Miyazaki, Y. (2025) · Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.jiac.2025.102747 · Cited by 2
Acridine Derivatives as Antifungal and Antivirulence Agents Against Candida albicans
Yunus, A., Faleye, O. O., Lee, J., & Lee, J. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26157228 · Cited by 2
“As a natural member of the human microbiota, C. albicans typically resides harmlessly on mucosal surfaces [4].”
Voriconazole topical delivery using PCL-PEG-PCL triblock copolymer nanomicelles; an efficient approach to treat Candida albicans skin infections
Ullah, H., Ahmed, N., Wazir, N., Ullah, N., Gul, P., & Rehman, A. U. (2025) · Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2025.107353 · Cited by 2
Chemical Composition, Biocompatibility, and Anti-Candida albicans Activity of Schinus weinmanniifolia Mart. ex Engl.
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Multilocus sequence typing of Candida albicans isolates from wild and farm animals from southern Italy
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Myco- and microbiological profiling of a human cadaver reveals drug-resistant strains and new fungal records
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Evaluation of Umbelliferone's antifungal efficacy against multidrug-resistant Candida albicans: A combined in-vitro and in-silico approach investigating mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential
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The roles of salivary secretory IgA on the development of oral candidiasis
Zhou, J., Wang, J., Shen, J., Lin, Y., Kang, L., Wang, Y., Zhou, Y., Liao, G., & Ren, B. (2026) · Frontiers in Oral Health · doi:10.3389/froh.2026.1760095 · Cited by 2
“Other conditions like autoimmune diseases and malignancies also indirectly weaken sIgA-related immunity (18).”
Influential
Lippia sidoides essential oil against Candida auris and Candida albicans – A promising strategy for antifungal activity in the context of oral candidiasis
Araujo, G. S., de Jesus, I. C. T. A., da Costa, P. C. Q. G., Marques, K. K. G., Gonçalves, J. C. R., & de Castro, R. D. (2026) · Archives of Oral Biology · doi:10.1016/j.archoralbio.2026.106572 · Cited by 3
Evaluation of the Antifungal Activity of the Polyphenol Formulation Viroelixir Against Candida albicans
Dahdah, M., Ettouil, Y., Issa, H., Koussih, L., Almutairi, M. H., Rouabhia, M., & Semlali, A. (2026) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics15040420 · Cited by 2
The mycobiome, virome and archaeome in gastrointestinal cancers: molecular pathogenesis and therapeutic intervention
Cheng, H., & Wong, C. C. (2026) · Molecular Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12943-026-02698-3 · Cited by 2
“The opportunistic pathogen C. albicans employs a multi-faceted offensive strategy [126, 185, 194].”

Authors: Talapko, J., Juzbašić, M., Matijević, T., Pustijanac, E., Bekić, S., Kotris, I., & Škrlec, I.
Affiliations: University of Osijek (HR)
Klinički bolnički centar Osijek (HR)
Juraj Dobrila University of Pula (HR)
Department of Internal Medicine, General County Hospital Vukovar, HR-3200 Vukovar, Croatia
Corresponding author: Škrlec, Ivana
ORCID: Talapko, Jasminka
Juzbašić, Martina
Matijević, Tatjana
Pustijanac, Emina
Škrlec, Ivana
Venue: Journal of Fungi
Publisher: MDPI AG
Published: 2021-01-22
Volume: 7
Issue: 2
Pages: 79
ISSN: 2309-608X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3390/jof7020079
PMC: PMC7912069
OpenAlex: W3124481512
Cited by: 794
References: 175
Citations by year: 2026: 149 · 2025: 231 · 2024: 187 · 2023: 121 · 2022: 89 · 2021: 15
FWCI: 12.05
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Journal of Fungi (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Antifungal resistance and susceptibility
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Fungal Infections and Studies
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Fungal and yeast genetics research
Keywords: Candida albicans, virulence factors, candidiasis, oral candidiasis, invasive candidiasis, candidemia, commensalism, dysbiosis, mucosal barrier, host immune response, opportunistic fungal infection, clinical features

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Candida albicans—The Virulence Factors and Clinical Manifestations of Infection

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