Smallholders, Agrarian Reform, and Globalization in the Brazilian Amazon: Cattle versus the Environment

May combine two claims.

The paper provides evidence of exploitive production relations in the region, which may portend a new wave of contention brought on by what has been referred to in the literature as a land grab through informal contract farming.

“We provide evidence of exploitive production relations in the region, which may portend a new wave of contention brought on by what has been referred to in the literature as a land grab through informal contract farming [31][32][33].”

• cites [31] Borras, 2012, Land grabbing in Latin America and the Caribbean, J. Peasant Stud. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [32] Lund, 2011, New frontiers of land control: Introduction, J. Peasant Stud. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction discusses what has been dubbed the “global land grab” and describes changing forms of land control. It does not identify informal contract farming as a form of land grabbing. The citing authors’ statement that they provide evidence from their region is their own claim, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [33] Smalley, 2012, Large-scale land deals from inside out: Findings from Kenya’s Tana Delta, J. Peasant Stud. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Smallholders have a mixed herd (dairy and beef) rather than pure-bred cattle, because such animals are less expensive and they better meet the dual needs of milk production and calving.

“For their part, smallholders have a mixed herd (dairy and beef) rather than pure-bred cattle, because such animals are less expensive and they better meet the dual needs of milk production and calving.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The livelihood systems of smallholders originally targeted for colonization have evolved dramatically over the past few decades, from mostly subsistence farming based strictly on household resources, to small-scale ranching tied to the global economy via production networks.

“Despite this checkered development history, there is little doubt that the livelihood systems of the smallholders who were originally targeted for colonization have evolved dramatically over the past few decades, from mostly subsistence farming based strictly on household resources, to small-scale ranching tied to the global economy via production networks.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The six settlement projects in Southeastern Pará are representative of agrarian reform settlements in the Brazilian Amazon, so findings from them can be generalized to Amazonian smallholders in SPs.

May combine two claims.

Nearly all households with cattle received credit originally provided for dairy cattle, but most of them are engaged in mixed production, and only 13 percent said they produced a limited quantity of milk for sale in local markets, the remaining produced milk for self consumption.

“Finally, nearly all households with cattle received credit originally provided for dairy cattle, but most of them are engaged in mixed production (dairy and beef), and only 13 percent said they produced a limited quantity of milk for sale in local markets, the remaining produced milk for self consumption.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Further analysis of the data shows that while mean changes in animals between 2006 and 2011 were not statistically significant, changes in area under pasture and animal density (cows/hectare) were.

“However, further analysis of the data shows that while mean changes in animals between 2006 and 2011 were not statistically significant, changes in area under pasture and animal density (cows/hectare) were.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Even new smallholders receiving land inside SPs know that crop diversification would be a better option for the environment, but it is easier to get credit for cattle only, since credit for other production activities is rarely available.

“Even new smallholders receiving a piece of land inside SPs know that crop diversification would be a better option for the environment; however, it is easier to get credit for cattle only, since rarely is credit made available for other production activities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Acerola cherry and açaí need to reach the market within 24 hours after harvest, and cupuaçu within a window of four days.

“For instance, acerola cherry and açai, two viable and profitable crops for the region, need to reach the market within 24 h after harvest, and cupuaçu within a window of four days (personal communication, extension agent, Marabá, April 2011).”

May combine two claims.

Almost three times as many calves were sold than cows, and those reporting meat or mixed meat-dairy production actually sold more calves.

“Furthermore, almost three times as many calves were sold than cows, and those reporting meat or mixed meat-dairy production actually sold more calves.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Overall, non-cattle agricultural production ranked only fourth as a source of income, providing less than 10 percent of the annual average.

“Overall, non-cattle agricultural production ranked only fourth as a source of income, providing less than 10 percent of the annual average (See Table 5).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Descriptive statistics show that 71 percent of household heads were male, with a mean age of 53 years.

“Descriptive statistics for socio economic characteristics of households in the 2011 sample show that 71 percent of household heads were male, with a mean age of 53 years (see Table 1).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Of the estimated 53 percent of households that reported involvement with cropping in 2010, most stated that the land dedicated to crops was small, and only 20 percent were able to report the area planted, which averaged 4 hectares.

“Of the estimated 53 percent of households that reported involvement with cropping in 2010, most stated that the land dedicated to crops was small, and only 20 percent were able to report the area planted, which averaged 4 hectares.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

In 2011 interviews, an estimated 79 smallholders reported receiving government credit exclusively for investment in cattle, and of those, 63 (80 percent) still had animals on their property.

“Our 2011 interviews show that an estimated 79 smallholders reported that they received government credit exclusively for investment in cattle, and of those farmers, 63 (80 percent) still have animals on their property.”

May combine two claims.

From the interviews with smallholders, calving operations were the primary focus of their activities, and the vast majority of sales were to middlemen working with large ranchers in the region.

“From the interviews with smallholders it became apparent that calving operations were the primary focus of their activities, and the vast majority of sales were to middlemen working with large ranchers in the region.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

The most important income source was government transfers, at 28 percent average annual income, received by 68 percent of the sample, followed by the sale of calves to large ranchers at 17 percent, involving 60 percent of those interviewed.

“By and far the most important income source was (1) government transfers, at 28 percent average annual income, that were received by 68 percent of the sample, followed by (2) the sale of calves to large ranchers at 17 percent, involving 60 percent of those interviewed (Table 3).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Farmers stated that they sold primarily male calves to middlemen and ranchers, and cows over five years of age and sickly to the local butcher.

“In general, farmers stated that they sold primarily male calves to middlemen and ranchers, and cows over five years of age and sickly to the local butcher.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Even extension agents argue that smallholders make more profit in cattle ranching.

“Even extension agents, who are tasked with explaining the benefits of agricultural diversification, argue that smallholders make more profit in cattle ranching.”

May combine two claims.

The study uncovered several questionable instances where individual largeholders bought the entire production of a SP, coercing smallholders to accept payments in kind instead of monetary compensation, including pasture improvements and fence repairs.

“This study uncovered several questionable instances where individual largeholders bought the entire production of a SP, coercing smallholders to accept payments in kind instead of monetary compensation, including pasture improvements, fence repairs, etc.”

May combine two claims.

The average education for the household head was three years of formal education, with 23 percent of those interviewed illiterate, and only one person in the entire sample reached the maximum level of formal education (15 years with a college degree).

“In terms of education, the average for the household head was three years of formal education, with 23 percent of those interviewed illiterate, and only one person in the entire sample who reached the maximum level of formal education (15 years with a college degree).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Corn, rice, and manioc were the three most important crops planted, primarily for family consumption or feed for animals, with the exception of two households that sold small quantities of manioc flour to neighbors.

“Corn, rice, and manioc were the three most important crops planted, primarily for family consumption or feed for animals, with the exception of two households that sold small quantities of manioc flour to neighbors (see Table 2).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Roads are in poor condition during the extended rainy season, making it impossible to bring perishable products to the city in time to get a good return.

“Furthermore, roads are in poor condition during the extended rainy season, making it impossible to bring perishable products to the city in time to get a good return.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For the sample, the bolsa-família amount varied from US $16 to $151 per month.

“For the sample, the amount varied from US $16 to $151 per month.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

The most frequent explanation given by those who considered alternative production more profitable than cattle was inadequate lot size for cattle to be economically viable and the long-term unsustainability of pasture in an area where soil quality is questionable.

“The most frequent explanation related to inadequate lot size for cattle to be economically viable and the long-term unsustainability of pasture in an area where soil quality is questionable.”

May combine two claims.

Of the 74 households reporting cattle in 2010, 30 percent reported engagement in dairy, 9 percent in meat production, and 61 percent reported mixed dairy-meat activities.

“Of the 74 households reporting cattle in 2010, 30 percent reported engagement in dairy, 9 percent in meat production, and 61 percent of smallholders reported mixed dairy-meat activities (see Table 4).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

By the time of the 2011 fieldwork, 71 percent of households stated they had access to electricity for the first time, with average monthly costs of US $21, or 3.5 percent of total income.

“By the time of the 2011 fieldwork, 71 percent of households stated they had access to electricity for the first time, with average monthly costs of US $21, or 3.5 percent of total income.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Smallholders frequently mentioned that soils were not sufficiently fertile and that additional inputs such as expensive fertilizers and tractors were needed, which only large-scale farmers can afford.

“In addition to criticism associated with lack of technical support and market strength, it was also mentioned with high frequency that soils were not sufficiently fertile, and that additional inputs would be needed, such as expensive fertilizers and tractors, which only large-scale farmers can afford.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to a lawyer working with the landless movement, smallholders follow the logic of immediate results, and the mechanics of bringing products to market in larger cities remain a challenge.

“According to a lawyer working with the landless movement (personal communication, April 2011), smallholders work by following the logic of immediate results, and the mechanics of bringing products to market in larger cities remain a challenge.”

May combine two claims.

Of the 29 percent reporting no cattle in 2010, all indicated that they had cattle previously, but needed to sell animals in order to pay accumulating debts, and their plans were to re-build their herds in the future.

“Of the 29 percent reporting no cattle in 2010, all indicated that they had cattle previously, but needed to sell animals in order to pay accumulating debts, and their plans were to re-build their herds in the future.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Despite the plans for diversified food production elaborated in the PDAs, smallholders indicated minimal involvement with cropping, and an estimated 47 percent of households stated that they planted no crops at all.

“Despite the plans for diversified food production elaborated in the PDAs, smallholders indicated minimal involvement with cropping, and an estimated 47 percent of households stated that they planted no crops at all.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

An estimated one-third of smallholder income is used to pay principal and interest on loans acquired during initial creation of the SPs (31 percent), and an additional 28 percent of monthly income is used to purchase food at local grocery stores.

“In terms of monthly expenses, an estimated one-third of smallholder income is used to pay principal and interest on loans acquired during initial creation of the SPs (31 percent), and an additional 28 percent of monthly income is used to purchase food at local grocery stores.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Many smallholders started ranching in order to produce milk for home consumption and to sell to local micro-industries.

“Within the region, many smallholders started ranching in order to produce milk for home consumption and to sell to local micro-industries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

On average, four people lived on each property, with a residence of 11 years on site.

“On average, four people lived on each property, with a residence of 11 years on site.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Those no longer engaged in cattle activities despite receiving credit explained they had no option but to sell their animals to pay debts, mostly related to medical expenses, and all expressed intention to buy more cattle in the future.

“Those no longer engaged in cattle activities, despite receiving credit, explained that they had no option but to sell their animals in order to pay debts, mostly related to medical expenses, and all expressed their intention to buy more cattle in the future.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other smallholders stated that they rented pasture, at about 9 percent of the sample.

“Other smallholders stated that they rented pasture, at about 9 percent of the sample.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

May combine two claims.

Off-farm employment provided the highest income (28 percent), although only 30 percent of the sample reported involvement in such activities, and the average income was skewed as a result of a select few residents with formal sector jobs.

“Off-farm employment provided the highest income (28 percent), although only 30 percent of the sample reported involvement in such activities, and the average income was skewed as a result of a select few residents with formal sector jobs (e.g., teacher, ambulance driver).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Smallholders' self-reported survey responses about production, income, and expenditures are accurate.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

According to key informants, the opportunity costs for forest protection under programs such as REDD are too great, and smallholders see no motivation to keep their land in forest if they are unable to receive a profit.

“According to key informants, the opportunity costs for forest protection under programs, such as REDD, are too great, and smallholders see no motivation to keep their land in forest if they are unable to receive a profit.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Low soil fertility throughout the region complements the land-use choices of the smallholders in the sample, as observed by extension agents in the research network.

“Complementing the land-use choices of the smallholders in our sample is low soil fertility throughout the region, a circumstance that has been observed by extension agents in our research network.”

May combine two claims.

Informants point to the ease of obtaining credit for cattle, while the opposite situation prevails for those desiring to implement diversified farming systems.

“Our informants point to the ease of obtaining credit for cattle, while quite the opposite situation prevails for those desiring to implement diversified farming systems.”

May combine two claims.

Amazonia's smallholders are now fully engaged agents in Brazil's export economy, and frequently energetic participants in the region's agrarian politics.

“They are now fully engaged agents in Brazil's export economy, and, frequently, energetic participants in the region's agrarian politics.”

May combine two claims.

As a result of crop failures, many smallholders, including those who received credit for cropping, shifted their land use to pasture and began to invest in cattle in the short term.

“As a result of these failures, in the short-term many smallholders, even those who received credit for cropping, shifted their land use to pasture and began to invest in cattle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

To date, nearly 9250 SPs have been created in Brazil, housing more than 968,000 families; most are located in the north and northeast, the poorest regions in the country.

“To date, nearly 9250 SPs have been created in Brazil, housing more than 968,000 families; most are located in the north and northeast, the poorest regions in the country [20].”

• cites [20] INCRA Assentamentos, Available online:http://www.incra.gov.br.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

By 2007, almost 60 million hectares of land in Amazonia were owned by one percent of establishments that formed an elite group of wealthy ranchers, while a limited 4.4 million hectares were occupied by small farmers, who represented 45 percent of the establishments.

“By 2007, almost 60 million hectares of land in Amazonia were owned by one percent of establishments that formed an elite group of wealthy ranchers, while a limited 4.4 million hectares were occupied by small farmers, who represented 45 percent of the establishments [18].”

• cites [18] Agropecuario, C. (2006). Brasil, Grandes Regioes e Unidades da Federacao, IBGE.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The analyses deploy multiple modes of assessment based on free-form interviews of key informants and systematic surveys of settlement households, yielding both context and detail.

“The analyses undertaken deploy multiple modes of assessment based on free-form interviews of key informants conducted in 2010, 2011, and 2012, and systematic surveys of settlement households in 2011.We use the interview data to provide our framing context, and also to identify biophysical, political, and historical circumstances of which individual households may be unaware.”

May combine two claims.

The stocking density is below smallholder averages in other parts of Amazonia (i.e., 1 animal/hectare), which is reflective of a highly unproductive land use that raises concerns about smallholder welfare and environmental sustainability.

“Indeed, the stocking density is below smallholder averages in other parts of Amazonia (i.e., 1 animal/hectare), which is reflective of a highly unproductive land use that raises concerns about smallholder welfare and environmental sustainability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The livestock system of smallholders is distinct from that of large ranchers, who specialize in commercial production with animals genetically manipulated to produce high quality beef in a short period.

“In general, the livestock system of smallholders is distinct from that of large ranchers, who specialize in commercial production with animals genetically manipulated to produce high quality beef in a short period.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These new production relations are further motivated and maintained by Brazil's contradictory agrarian reform programs, and the unintended outcomes of environmental regulations.

“These new production relations are further motivated and maintained by Brazil's contradictory agrarian reform programs, and the unintended outcomes of environmental regulations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Southeastern Pará is one of Brazil's largest beef exporting areas to international markets, as a result of concerted government investments to eradicate Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), and its subsequent designation as a FMD-free zone in 2007, open to international export under requirements of the World Organization for Animal Health.

“Today, this region is one of Brazil's largest beef exporting areas to international markets, as a result of concerted government investments to eradicate Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), and its subsequent designation as a FMD-free zone in 2007, open to international export under requirements of the World Organization for Animal Health [12].”

• cites [12] Walker, 2009, Ranching and the new global range: Amazônia in the 21st century, Geoforum sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The expectation is that smallholders will have a greater investment in the SP, and chances for success will be higher given their engagement and commitment, as opposed to the colonization programs of the 1970s.

“The expectation is that smallholders will have a greater investment in the SP, and chances for success will be higher given their engagement and commitment, as opposed to the colonization programs of the 1970s [22].”

• cites [22] Agrária, R. (1997). Compromisso de Todos, Presidência da República, Governo Fernando Henrique Cardoso.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Once smallholders perceive that there is a well-established chain for calf sales, they open small plots of pasture without any credit and at the time of PDA development, they refuse to switch to more diversified production.

“Therefore, once smallholders perceive that there is a well-established chain for calf sales, they open small plots of pasture without any credit and at the time of PDA development, they refuse to switch to more diversified production.”

May combine two claims.

Calves are an important secondary product of dairy production and proved to be economically more profitable.

“However, an important secondary product of dairy production are calves, which proved to be economically more profitable.”

May combine two claims.

As of 2013, the cattle herd in Amazonia was over 80 million animals, accounting for more than 25 percent of Brazilian export of beef destined to satisfy demands around the world, with markets in Latin America, the European Union, the Middle East, and Asia, including China.

“As of 2013, the cattle herd in Amazonia was over 80 million animals, accounting for more than 25 percent of Brazilian export of beef destined to satisfy demands around the world, with markets in Latin America, the European Union, the Middle East, and Asia, including China [2].”

• cites [2] Arima, E., Barreto, P., and Brito, M. (2005). Pecuária na Amazônia: Tendências e Implicações para a Conservação, IMAZON.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Southeastern Pará has a long history of land conflict, pitting the landless against large ranchers, and triggering political mobilization for the purposes of agrarian reform that has resulted in the creation of many SPs.

“The region also has a long history of land conflict, pitting the landless against large ranchers, and triggering political mobilization for the purposes of agrarian reform that has resulted in the creation of many SPs [4].”

• cites [4] Simmons, 2010, Doing it for themselves: Direct action land reform in the Brazilian Amazon, World Dev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Land-extensive cattle ranching has resulted in the replication of land inequality observed in other parts of Brazil, as early smallholders were forced from their land due to their inability to compete in markets or through violent appropriation by largeholders, which pushed them further into forest frontiers or growing frontier boom towns.

“Unfortunately, land-extensive cattle ranching has also resulted in the replication of land inequality observed in other parts of Brazil, as early smallholders were forced from their land due to their inability to compete in markets or through violent appropriation by largeholders, which pushed them further into forest frontiers or growing frontier boom towns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 2010, a pilot study was conducted to test the survey instrument and ensure that the 2006 sampling strategy could be repeated, confirming the ability to reach the same small farmers for the follow-up surveys.

“In 2010, a pilot study was conducted to test the survey instrument and ensure that the 2006 sampling strategy could be repeated, confirming our ability to reach the same small farmers for the follow-up surveys.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main criterion for sample selection was household engagement with cattle in the 2006 fieldwork by Simmons and colleagues.

“This is not surprising given that the focus of this research was smallholder cattle production activities in SPs, thus, the main criterion for sample selection was household engagement with cattle in the 2006 fieldwork by Simmons and colleagues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The new economic status of the former peasant has brought new potentials for exploitation on the part of large-scale ranchers and the emergent food-processing sector.

“Further, the new economic status of the former peasant has also brought new potentials for exploitation on the part of large-scale ranchers and the emergent food-processing sector.”

May combine two claims.

The newly emergent production chain linking large and smallholders has the potential to undermine Amazonian family farming, with implications for food security.

“The newly emergent production chain linking large and smallholders has the potential to undermine Amazonian family farming, with implications for food security [5].”

• cites [5] Simon, 2005, The expansion of agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon, Environ. Conserv. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

REDD+ policies recognize the negative role played by ranching as a driver of deforestation, and the importance of involving the region's residents in sustainable development activities to mitigate environmental degradation.

“REDD+ policies recognize the negative role played by ranching as a driver of deforestation, and the importance of involving the region's residents in sustainable development activities to mitigate environmental degradation (http://www.un-redd.org/and www.imazon.org.br).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Walker et al., Poccard-Chapuis et al., and Vosti et al. attributed the gradual transformation of crops and forestlands into planted pasture in small-scale farms to a widespread process of pecuarização.

“Walker et al. [6], Poccard-Chapuis et al. [7], and Vosti et al. [8] attributed this gradual transformation of crops and forestlands into planted pasture in small-scale farms to a widespread process of pecuarização, or expansion of the cattle ranching economy toward the Amazon's geographical limits.”

• cites [6] Walker, R., Homma, A., Scatena, F., Conto, A., Rodriquez, C., Ferreira, C., Mourão, P., and Carvalho, R. (1998). Amazonia: The Environment and Agricultural Development, EMBRAPA.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [7] Poccard-Chapuis, R., Turrand, J.F., Pketty, M.G., and da Veiga, J. (2001). Cadeia Produtiva de Gado de Corte e Pecuarização da Agricultura Familiar na Transamazônica, EMBRAPA.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [8] Vosti, S.A., Baz, E.M., Crpentier, C.L., D'Oliveira, M.V.N., and Witcover, J. (2003, January 19–23). Small-scale managed forestry at the Brazilian agricultural frontier: Adoption, effects and policy issues. Proceedings of the International Conference on Rural Livelihoods, Forests and Biodiversity, Bonn, Germany.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In the Brazilian Amazon, mainly large-scale producers are driving commercial agricultural development, while smallholders are finding it economically viable to replace forest and old croplands by planting pasture.

“In the Brazilian Amazon, it is mainly large-scale producers who are driving commercial agricultural development, while smallholders are finding it economically viable to replace forest and old croplands by planting pasture [5].”

• cites [5] Simon, 2005, The expansion of agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon, Environ. Conserv. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These changes have brought opportunities for accumulating a modicum of wealth that were not available in the early stages of colonization.

“These changes have brought opportunities for accumulating a modicum of wealth that were not available in the early stages of colonization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The increase in debt from the purchase of durable goods coincides with the arrival of electricity in the SPs as part of the Luz Para Todos program (Light for All), initiated in 2003 to eradicate electricity exclusion in Brazil's rural areas.

“Interestingly, the increase in debt from the purchase of durable goods coincides with the arrival of electricity in the SPs as part of the Luz Para Todos program (Light for All), initiated in 2003 to eradicate electricity exclusion in Brazil's rural areas [26].”

• cites [26] Browder, 2008, Patterns of development and land cover change in the Brazilian Amazon: A farm-level analysis of Rondonia’S settlement frontier, 1992–2002, World Dev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Final data collection occurred in 2011, during which time 104 of the 121 households (85 percent) were located and surveys completed.

“Final data collection occurred in 2011, during which time 104 of the 121 households (85 percent) were located and surveys completed.”

May combine two claims.

The social transformation of Amazonia's rural population presents dubious results for the environment and for the participating households themselves.

“Although a potential development success in certain terms, this social transformation of Amazonia's rural population presents more dubious results for the environment, and for the participating households themselves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Cattle provide better returns because herds move by themselves regardless of season, eliminating transportation costs, and they provide the added benefit of milk production for familial consumption.

“This is especially so since herds move by themselves regardless of season, eliminating transportation costs, and they provide the added benefit of milk production for familial consumption.”

May combine two claims.

Over time, more animals were being raised on each property, implying more area was needed for pasture and consequently less was available for agriculture.

“These findings show that, over time, more animals were being raised on each property.This in turn implies that more area was needed for pasture and consequently less was available for agriculture.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Policy explicitly prohibits monoculture systems, such as cattle ranching, and suggests that credit and extension must focus on diversified and sustainable agriculture practices.

“Policy explicitly prohibits monoculture systems, such as cattle ranching, and suggests that credit and extension must focus on diversified and sustainable agriculture practices [23,24].”

• cites [23] INCRA Crédito Instalação, Available online:http://www.incra.gov.br.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [24] Gonçalves, E.C., and Fernandes, B.M. (2009). Análise e Mapeamento dos Tipos de Assentamentos de Reforma Agrária e Reforma Agrária de Mercado no Brasil: Contribuição para Compreensão da Diversidade e a Atualidade da Reforma Agrária Brasileira, NERA.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The data collection involved both random and systematic sampling methods; for the initial 2006 data collection, the SP was divided into quadrants, every 3rd house along the road was selected, and a 20 percent sample of households was reached.

“The data collection involved both random and systematic sampling methods.For the initial 2006 data collection, the SP was divided into quadrants to ensure geospatial representation, and then every 3rd house along the road was selected; if the landowner was not present, the next house was visited, and so on until a 20 percent sample of households was reached.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Cattle, and in particular calving, is the only activity in the region that has a well-consolidated supply chain and does not depend on road conditions to reach the market in good condition.

“Cattle, and in particular calving, is the only activity in the region that has a well-consolidated supply chain and does not depend on road conditions to reach the market in good condition.”

May combine two claims.

The decline in cattle density would appear to contradict the expected pecuarização of Amazonia, and the overall importance of cattle in the region.

“The decline in cattle density would appear to contradict the expected pecuarização of Amazonia, and the overall importance of cattle in the region [12].”

• cites [12] Walker, 2009, Ranching and the new global range: Amazônia in the 21st century, Geoforum sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Despite early prognostication that the region was not viable for agriculture and ranching in particular offered little promise of success without massive government subsidies, animal husbandry has proven more successful and resilient.

“Despite early prognostication that the region was not viable for agriculture and ranching in particular offered little promise of success without massive government subsidies [11], animal husbandry has proven more successful and resilient [12].”

• cites [11] Hecht, 1985, Environment, development, and politics: Capital accumulation and the livestock sector in eastern Amazonia, World Dev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [12] Walker, 2009, Ranching and the new global range: Amazônia in the 21st century, Geoforum sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Homma observed that the amount of land attributed to pasture was similar to the amount used for cropping in the properties visited in 1975, while Walker et al. found that only one-tenth of the total land allocated to pasture was used for cropping.

“In fact, Homma observed that the amount of land attributed to pasture was similar to the amount used for cropping in the properties visited in 1975 [9], while Walker et al. found that only one-tenth of the total land allocated to pasture was used for cropping [10].”

• cites [9] Homma, A. (1976). Programacao das Atividades Agropecuarias, sob Condicoes de Risco, nos Lotes do Núcleo de Colonização de Altamira, Universidade Federal de Viçosa.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [10] Walker, 2000, Deforestation and cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon: External capital and household processes, World Dev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The retirement income is always equivalent to one minimum wage, which at the time data were collected was US $270 per month.

“The retirement income is always equivalent to one minimum wage, which at the time data were collected was US $270 2 per month [30].”

• cites [30] Gereffi, G., and Korzeniewicz, M. (1994). Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism, Praeger Publishers. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Investing in diversified production provides access to nutritious food and does not expose the producer to economic crashes, for example, in case a disease affects commercial products, not only reducing production, but also closing markets.

“However, investing in diversified production provides access to nutritious food, and does not expose the producer to economic crashes, for example, in case a disease affects commercial products, not only reducing production, but also in closing markets.”

May combine two claims.

Like contract farmers around the world, the smallholders in the study sample arguably maintain a tenuous link to the land they own, and are subject to a form of land grab now endemic to global production networks.

“Thus, like contract farmers around the world, the smallholders in our study sample arguably maintain a tenuous link to the land they own, and, as such, are subject to a form of land grab now endemic to global production networks.”

May combine two claims.

During this evolution, soybeans utilized more hectares in Northern Mato Grosso, while cattle expanded toward the so-called arc of deforestation.

“During this evolution, soybeans utilized more hectares in Northern Mato Grosso, while cattle expanded toward the so-called arc of deforestation [36].”

• cites [36] Margulis, S. (2004). Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, World Bank. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Credit for cattle is meant to stimulate the dairy sector, but smallholders have discovered that calving operations aimed at beef production provide a greater return.

“Credit for cattle is meant to stimulate the dairy sector, but smallholders have discovered that calving operations aimed at beef production provide a greater return.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Credit given for SP livestock was originally meant for milk production.

May combine two claims.

The cattle economy has provided smallholders a modicum of accumulation but contradicts the principle of sustainability as originally conceived by both the social movements and the Brazilian government.

“This economic consequence, although it has provided smallholders a modicum of accumulation, contradicts the principle of sustainability, as originally conceived by both the social movements and the Brazilian government.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Food security concerns stem from exposure to the vagaries of the market, as food insecurity can result from a market crash.

“In this process, food security concerns stem from exposure to the vagaries of the market, as food insecurity can result from a market crash.”

May combine two claims.

Mistakes of the past are amplified at the present time by the provision of credits favoring cattle acquisition, and stimulating more deforestation than might otherwise be the case, given the extensive nature of ranching.

“Mistakes of the past are amplified at the present time by the provision of credits favoring cattle acquisition, and stimulating more deforestation than might otherwise be the case, given the extensive nature of ranching.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Newly available transfer payments (e.g., bolsa-família) have helped build the smallholder cattle economy by reducing the supply of rural labor, critical for the implementation and maintenance of diversified farm systems with intensified production.

“Newly available transfer payments (e.g., bolsa-família) have also helped build the smallholder cattle economy by reducing the supply of rural labor, critical for the implementation and maintenance of diversified farm systems with intensified production.”

May combine two claims.

The smallholders in the sample find the opportunity costs of both diversified farming and dairy production to be too high, given the good prices and sure market for calves that have in all likelihood resulted from Brazil's emergence on the world stage as a premier beef supplier.

“Although they do not express it this way, the smallholders in our sample find the opportunity costs of both diversified farming and dairy production to be too high, given the good prices and sure market for calves that have in all likelihood resulted from Brazil's emergence on the world stage as a premier beef supplier.”

May combine two claims.

Credit availability meant to help smallholders might reduce the numbers of family farms and potentially open the door to land concentration.

“In other words, credit availability meant to help smallholders might reduce the numbers of family farms, and potentially open the door to land concentration.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The substitution of cattle herds for diversified agriculture exposes smallholders to price fluctuation affecting any monocultural system.

“Second, the substitution of cattle herds for diversified agriculture exposes smallholders to price fluctuation affecting any monocultural system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The importance of cattle to smallholders in Southeastern Pará (and Amazonia more generally) has a basis in the failure of government to adequately vet regional market opportunities in the settlement formation process, which requires federal approval of the PDA.

“The importance of cattle to smallholders in Southeastern Pará (and Amazonia more generally) has a basis in the failure of government to adequately vet regional market opportunities in the settlement formation process, which requires federal approval of the PDA.”