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Cited by 140Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource ManagementAgriculture, Land Use, Rural DevelopmentLand Rights and Reforms

Explaining the persistence of low income and environmentally degrading land uses in the Brazilian Amazon

Open access
Garrett, Rachael D., Gardner, Toby A., Morello, Thiago Fonseca, Marchand, Sebastien, Barlow, Jos, Ezzine de Blas, Driss, Ferreira, Joice, Lees, Alexander C. +1 more·2017·Ecology and Society
DOI 10.5751/es-09364-220327
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Abstract

Garrett, R. D., T. A. Gardner, T. Fonseca, S. Marchand, J. Barlow, D. Ezzine de Blas, J. Ferreira, A. C. Lees, and L. Parry. 2017. Explaining the persistence of low income and environmentally degrading land uses in the Brazilian Amazon. Ecology and Society 22(3):27. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09364-220327

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper asks why low-income, environmentally degrading land uses—especially extensive cattle ranching—persist in the eastern Brazilian Amazon despite higher-return cropping alternatives. Using social-ecological data from Santarém and Paragominas, it finds that income is not the main driver of perceived well-being, and that land-use persistence is shaped by assets, infrastructure, cultural preferences, and nonmonetary rural lifestyle benefits.

Key findings

  • Specialty crops (perennials and horticulture) had the highest per-hectare farm income (mean US$3,304/ha), about 1,300% higher than livestock systems and 200% higher than soy, staple, and mixed crop production; staple crops (US$1,753/ha) also significantly outperformed cattle and mixed cattle-crop systems.
  • Cattle remained the most expansive land use, occupying 73% of agricultural area, despite low productivity (0.83 head/ha) and low per-hectare income; 75% of households earned less than US$10,000/year from agricultural activities.
  • Land use was associated with household attributes: cattle specialization was more common among households from the Northeast, with larger, more remote properties and less credit/machinery; specialty, staple, and mixed cropping were more common on small peri-urban properties among migrants from the South; soy properties had substantially higher government credit access.
  • Subjective well-being was high overall (Santarém mean 2.7/3; Paragominas mean 2.5/3) and was not associated with farm, forest, or off-farm income; it was positively associated with income diversity, mixed cropping, safety, neighbor quality, and transportation access.

Methods

  • Used the Sustainable Amazon Network social-ecological dataset collected in 2010–2011 across Santarém and Paragominas: 367 transects in 36 watersheds, 623 households, and 499 properties; the main land-use analysis used 420 properties with full data, and the well-being model used n = 328.
  • Classified household-properties into mutually exclusive land uses when >75% of agricultural area was devoted to one use: cattle (n = 134), staple crops (n = 135), specialty crops (n = 27), soy (n = 21), mixed-crop (n = 48), cattle-crop (n = 33), and other livestock (n = 22); removed two property-size outliers >5,000 ha and four per-hectare income outliers.
  • Analyzed per-hectare income differences with one-way ANOVA and Tukey post-hoc tests; land-use determinants with a multinomial logit model; and subjective well-being with an ordered logit model using reported life quality (1 = poor, 2 = okay, 3 = good).

Limitations

  • The paper states that timber sales were excluded because of unreliable data and illegal practices; unpaid family labor costs were not included; home-consumed products were not counted as farm revenues; soil, slope, elevation, and input prices were excluded; and the well-being model had some multicollinearity, though VIFs were <1.9.
  • The paper notes the two case-study regions are fairly representative but also unique because of unusually high environmental NGO attention and novel governance initiatives, limiting generalization.
  • Evident from the design: the analysis is cross-sectional and observational, so causal claims are limited; income and land-use data rely on farmer recall; the 75% land-use classification threshold may obscure mixed or transitional systems.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.5751/es-09364-220327

Cites

78 of 78 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

4 of 49 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Subjective well-being can offer a more holistic measure of how well-off households are compared to monetized measures such as consumption, income, or savings.

    “a person's subjective well-being (one's perception of well-being measured as the response to questions regarding, for example, their level of happiness and satisfaction) can offer a more holistic measure of how well-off households are compared to that which is possible when only assessing monetized measures such as consumption, income, or savings (Diener and Seligman 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Diener and Seligman 2004 source
  • Premisecitation

    Background processes of globalization, urbanization, migration, and infrastructure development are enhancing flows of ideas, money, and goods within and between rural and urban areas, leading to livelihoods that are increasingly pluralistic and multilocal.

    “background processes of globalization, urbanization, migration, and infrastructure development are enhancing flows of ideas, money, and goods within and between rural and urban areas, leading to livelihoods that are increasingly pluralistic, engaging in both on and off-farm employment, and multilocal, occupying both urban and rural spaces simultaneously”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Rigg 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Padoch et al. 2008 source
    • cites Greiner and Sakdapolrak 2013 source
  • Premisecitation

    Throughout the tropics the success of organizations aiming to reduce fire usage has been limited by a failure to frame the problem in ways that make sense to local people.

    “Similarly, throughout the tropics the success of organizations aiming to reduce fire usage has been limited by a failure to frame the problem in ways that make sense to local people (Carmenta et al. 2011, 2013, Clark et al. 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Carmenta et al. 2011, 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Clark et al. 2011 source

      In “Use of Knowledge for Decision Support” (page unavailable), the paper says an initial top-down framing of deforestation and slash-and-burn was at odds with realities on the ground, prompting ASB to pursue locally salient priorities. It does not establish that organizations’ success in reducing fire use was limited throughout the tropics by this failure of framing. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Access to machinery differentiated mixed crop-cattle properties from exclusively cattle properties.

    “Access to machinery differentiated mixed crop-cattle properties from exclusively cattle properties”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    75% of households earned less than US$10,000 per year from agricultural activities.

    “yet 75% of households earned less than US$10,000 per year from agricultural activities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16
  • May combine two claims. 28

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The prestige associated with cattle ranching in Amazonia can mask its low returns, creating an informational and cultural barrier to change.

    “The prestige associated with cattle ranching in Amazonia can mask its low returns, creating an informational and cultural barrier to change (Hoelle 2011, Gomes et al. 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hoelle 2011 source
    • cites Gomes et al. 2012 source

      The Political Economy of Cattle Ranching in the Brazilian Amazon (page unavailable) says ranching profitability in the Amazon exceeds that elsewhere in Brazil, contrary to the claim of low returns. The Discussion (page unavailable) describes extractivists learning from ranching neighbors and viewing their improved housing and electricity as evidence of greater wellbeing; it does not describe prestige masking poor returns or creating a barrier to change. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A majority of the cattle-focused properties in the sample do not have large agricultural areas (<50 hectares) and still engage in extensive cattle ranching, earning low per hectare incomes relative to cropping.

    “Yet, a majority of the cattle-focused properties in our sample do not have large agricultural areas (< 50 hectares) and still engage in extensive cattle ranching, earning low per hectare incomes relative to cropping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Unlike earlier studies, fruit and horticulture products grown by households in the sample were largely sold, not gifted, and play a large role in generating income.

    “Yet, unlike these studies, we find that fruit and horticulture products grown by households in our sample were largely sold, not gifted, and play a large role in generating income.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Land use choices were associated with traditional productive assets (land and machinery), financial capital (government credit), social and knowledge systems (government extension and membership in agricultural associations), region of origin, and proximity to the closest town.

    “Land use choices were associated with myriad factors: traditional productive assets (land and machinery), financial capital (government credit), social and knowledge systems (government extension and membership in agricultural associations), region of origin, and proximity to the closest town”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Farmers in the study region are still primarily engaged in farming activities as their dominant source of income, and many successful examples of small-scale farming exist.

    “we find that farmers in our study region are still primarily engaged in farming activities as their dominant source of income, and many successful examples of small-scale farming exist.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Citrus, black pepper, and vegetable production all provide up to 10 times higher returns than other land uses.

    “Citrus, black pepper, and vegetable production all provide up to 10 times higher returns than other land uses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Specialty, staple, and mixed cropping were significantly more common in small, periurban properties and among households who migrated from the south of Brazil.

    “Specialty, staple, and mixed cropping were significantly more common in small, periurban properties and among households who migrated from the south of Brazil”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was no significant difference in per hectare operating costs or labor costs across different land uses.

    “There was no significant difference in per hectare operating costs or labor costs across different land uses”
    • Also stated in: § The persistence of low-income ranching in Amazonia · plain
      “the per hectare operating and labor costs for cattle properties were not statistically lower that other land uses”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Neither farm, forest, nor off-farm income or farm expenditures were associated with higher perceived life quality, despite being highly unequal within regions.

    “Neither farm, forest, nor offfarm income or farm expenditures were associated with higher perceived life quality, despite being highly unequal within regions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The low per hectare incomes of cattle properties stemmed from low productivity (0.83 head of cattle per hectare), which in some cases did not even compensate the costs of production.

    “The low per hectare incomes of cattle properties stemmed from low productivity (0.83 head of cattle per hectare), which in some cases did not even compensate the costs of production.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Soy production provides only moderate incomes and sustains itself through economies of scale.

    “In contrast, soy production provides only moderate incomes and sustains itself through economies of scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Neither on-farm nor off-farm income were associated with higher perceived life quality.

    “because neither on-or off-farm income were associated with higher perceived life quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    A majority of cattle farms sold only 10% of their herd during 2010 and most herds were comprised largely of calves and juveniles, rather than adult cattle.

    “a majority of cattle farms sold only 10% of their heard during 2010 and most herds were comprised largely of calves and juveniles, rather than adult cattle.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Having a larger farm size and a larger proportion of the farm cleared were both associated with higher perceived well-being.

    “Having a larger farm size and a larger proportion of the farm cleared (a smaller forest reserve) were both associated with higher perceived well-being”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    The most common rural off-farm employment was housecleaning.

    “most commonly, housecleaning, as found elsewhere in Brazil (da Silva and Del Grossi 2001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites da Silva and Del Grossi 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The most common sale age for cattle in the region is 36 months.

    “The most common sale age for cattle in the region is 36 months”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Feeling secure and liking one's neighbors were strongly associated with higher perceived well-being.

    “Feeling secure and liking one's neighbors were strongly associated with higher perceived well-being.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Ecological data were collected from a stratified random sample of 367 transects distributed across 36 watersheds in the two regions of Santarém and Paragominas.

    “The Sustainable Amazon Network dataset collected ecological data from a stratified random sample of 367 transects distributed across 36 watersheds in the two regions of Santarém and Paragominas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The relative abundance of land, labor, and manufactured capital within a particular region plays a pivotal role in determining regional and intra-household land use choices.

    “concluding that the relative abundance of these key assets within a particular region plays a pivotal role in determining regional (and intra-household) land use choices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Specialty cropping may be culturally appropriate and potentially economically appealing for small farmers located close to urban areas, but it will likely remain limited in more remote regions of the Amazon because of inadequate processing, storage, and supply infrastructure and high costs of transportation.

    “Although specialty cropping may be a culturally appropriate and potentially economically appealing land use for small farmers located close to urban areas, it will likely remain limited in more remote regions of the Amazon because of inadequate processing, storage, and supply infrastructure and high costs of transportation”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    A reduction in the prices of fruits and vegetables could benefit the urban poor.

    “On the other hand, such a reduction in the prices of fruits and vegetables could benefit the urban poor”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Current patterns of land use are the aggregate outcome of individual farmers acting to maximize their utility, given the assets they are endowed with.

    “Existing theory and empirical analysis from agricultural economics and land change science suggest that current patterns of land use are the aggregate outcome of individual farmers acting to maximize their utility, given the assets they are endowed with (Officer andHalter 1968, Walker 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Officer and Halter 1968 source
    • cites Walker 2004 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Socioeconomic survey data were collected from up to 20 randomly selected rural properties within each watershed, totaling 623 households and 499 properties.

    “These data were cocollected with socioeconomic survey data from up to 20 randomly selected rural properties within each watershed for a total of 623 households and 499 properties”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Tropical forests are critically threatened by agricultural expansion for internationally traded commodities such as soybeans, palm oil, and beef.

    “Currently, these ecosystems are critically threatened by agricultural expansion for internationally traded commodities such as soybeans, palm oil, and beef (Hansen et al. 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hansen et al. 2013 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Extensive cattle ranching is thought to have low and less seasonal labor demands relative to most systems of crop production, particularly nonmechanized fruit and horticulture production.

    “First, extensive cattle ranching is thought to have low and less seasonal labor demands relative to most systems of crop production (Hecht 1993, Muchagata andBrown 2003), particularly nonmechanized fruit and horticulture production (Nepstad et al. 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hecht 1993 source
    • cites Muchagata and Brown 2003 source
    • cites Nepstad et al. 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Well-being in the study region is highly influenced by the nonmonetary outcomes associated with a rural lifestyle, including safety and good community relations, and the longer term economic and social benefits associated with the accumulation of land and cattle.

    “Instead, well-being in the study region is highly influenced by the nonmonetary outcomes associated with a rural lifestyle, including safety and good community relations, and the longer term economic and social benefits associated with the accumulation of land and cattle.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The expansion of profitable land uses (horticulture and perennials) continues to be limited by lagging supply chains and the fact that agricultural income is not a primary source of perceived life quality.

    “However, the expansion of profitable land uses (horticulture and perennials) continues to be limited by lagging supply chains and the fact that agricultural income is not a primary source of perceived life quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the context of volatile and uncertain land and currency markets, cattle ranching provides a low cost and low risk way to maintain control over a large land area and take advantage of speculative opportunities, while also building up a savings account via the cattle themselves.

    “Second, in the context of volatile and uncertain land and currency markets, cattle ranching provides a low cost and low risk way to maintain control over a large land area and take advantage of speculative opportunities, while also building up a savings account, via the cattle themselves (Hecht 1993, Bowman et al. 2012, Campbell 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hecht 1993 source
    • cites Bowman et al. 2012 source
    • cites Campbell 2015

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The disconnect between the income associated with land uses and its value to farmers may help explain why higher income land uses, specialty and staple cropping, are not associated with higher perceived life quality and why ranching, a low income land use, remains highly prevalent.

    “The disconnect between the income associated with land uses and its value to farmers may help explain why higher income land uses, specialty and staple cropping, are not associated with higher perceived life quality and why ranching, a low income land use, remains highly prevalent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A majority of farmers in humid forests remain impoverished, often depending on subsistence agriculture for their livelihoods.

    “Yet, a majority of the farmers in humid forests remain impoverished, often depending on subsistence agriculture for their livelihoods (Sunderlin et al. 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sunderlin et al. 2003

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If access to more distant markets remains limited, then increased local production of fruit and vegetables could outpace growth in demand, leading to a reduction in the price of these goods.

    “If access to more distant markets remains limited, then increased local production of fruit and vegetables could outpace growth in demand, leading to a reduction in the price of these goods.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The transition to more profitable land uses is limited by lagging supply chain infrastructure, social preferences, and the fact that income associated with land use activities is not a primary source of perceived life quality.

    “The transition to more profitable land uses is limited by lagging supply chain infrastructure, social preferences, and the fact that income associated with land use activities is not a primary source of perceived life quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the Brazilian Amazon, agricultural exports have increased since 2005, yet rural income, education, and health remain well below the national average.

    “This challenge is especially pronounced in the Brazilian Amazon, where agricultural exports have increased since 2005, yet rural income, education, and health remain well below the national average (Nepstad et al. 2014, Valentim andGarrett 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Nepstad et al. 2014 source
    • cites Valentim and Garrett 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The multinomial logit model has been used in several prior studies to investigate the determinants of land use in the literature.

    “Finally, the multinomial logit model has been used in several prior studies to investigate the determinants of land use in the literature (See Chomitz and Gray, 1996;Li et al., 2013;Schuck et al., 2002 as examples).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chomitz and Gray, 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Li et al., 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Schuck et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The novel environmental governance initiatives present in these regions aided the ability to conduct surveys in the region.

    “The novel environmental governance initiatives present in these regions have engaged local farmers' groups and governments in a discussion around improved land use sustainability and aided our ability to conduct surveys in the region (Gardner et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gardner et al., 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Policies based solely on raising incomes may lead to unintended environmental and social consequences, including rebound effects on deforestation and increased social inequality.

    “Thus, policies based solely on raising incomes may lead to unintended environmental and social consequences, including rebound effects on deforestation and increased social inequality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Opportunities to generate higher income on small properties through specialty cropping exist, but are impeded by lagging supply chain infrastructure.

    “we find that opportunities to generate higher income on small properties through specialty cropping exist, but are impeded by lagging supply chain infrastructure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Opportunities to improve the productivity of larger scale ranching through better management are now abundant, but slowed by a lack of machinery and the fact that generating high annual revenues is not the primary objective of cattle ranching as a land use.

    “Similarly, opportunities to improve the productivity of larger scale ranching through better management are now abundant, but slowed by a lack of machinery and the fact that generating high annual revenues is not the primary objective of cattle ranching as a land use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning

    The diversity in backgrounds, assets, and land uses, both within and between Santarém and Paragominas, provides an ideal setting for statistical analysis.

    “This diversity in backgrounds, assets, and land uses, both within and between regions, provides an ideal setting for statistical analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Past efforts to promote changes in land use in the Brazilian Amazon have been stymied by a mischaracterization of well-being in purely economic terms and a misunderstanding of the factors that motivate farmers' decisions including social context, nonmonetary objectives, and asset and access limitations.

    “Our research suggests that past efforts to promote changes in land use in the Brazilian Amazon have been stymied by a mischaracterization of well-being in purely economic terms and a misunderstanding of the factors that motivate farmers' decisions including social context, nonmonetary objectives, and asset and access limitations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Agriculture continues to be an important part of rural livelihoods in the Brazilian Amazon, but not necessarily because of its income generating capacity.

    “Agriculture continues to be an important part of rural livelihoods in the Brazilian Amazon, but not necessarily because of its income generating capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Larger farm size and larger proportion cleared likely enable higher overall income and a greater range of land use and speculative possibilities.

    “likely because they enable higher overall income and a greater range of land use and speculative possibilities, especially in the context of increasing restrictions on deforestation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
42 of 42

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The survey data on household assets, land use, income, and well-being are accurate and valid.

    “Farmers were asked to report details on land use for each property during the prior growing season (2009/2010) as well as 2006/2007.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The multinomial logit model assumption that a property-household chooses its land use based on differences in perceived utility, maximizing utility among available alternatives.

    “This model assumes that a property-household chooses its land use based on differences in perceived utility, maximizing utility among available alternatives.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The subset of 420 properties with full data on all household assets is representative of the original 499 properties.

    “Of the original 499 properties only 420 contained full data on all household assets.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The land use categories based on >75% of agricultural area represent the household's primary land use.

    “Each household-property was classified under a mutually exclusive land use category if more than 75% of the agricultural area of their property was allocated to that use.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The interest rate used in the cattle net present value calculation is 5%.

    “where r is the interest rate, assumed to be 5%”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Juveniles need on average 12 more months to mature before being sold and calves need 24 more months.

    “This calculation assumes that juveniles need on average 12 more months to mature before being sold and calves need 24 more months.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    All male and female cattle are sold rather than being kept for breeding.

    “It also assumes that all males and females are sold, rather than being kept for breeding.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Total operating costs for the entire herd are static across all three years.

    “Total operating costs for the entire herd are assumed to be static across all three years (C2010) because we lack any method to refine cost estimates in future periods.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Farmers choose their land use strategies seeking to maximize utility (subjective wellbeing) from available alternatives.

    “We assume that farmers choose their land use strategies seeking to maximize utility (subjective wellbeing) from available alternatives.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Net benefits for a farmer using an alternative are a deterministic function of the set of conditioning assets owned by the farmer.

    “Net benefits, B, for the farmer i using the alternative j (i.e., one of the five land uses) are assumed to be a deterministic function of the set of conditioning assets Z owned by the farmer (Table S1), so 𝐵 𝑖𝑗 (𝑍).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The farmer will continue to use alternative j so long as the expected utility from j is at least as high as another alternative k.

    “It is assumed that the farmer will continue to use alternative j, so long as the expected utility from j is at least as high as another alternative k, such that: 𝑈(𝐵 𝑖𝑗 (𝑍)) ≥ 𝑈(𝐵 𝑖𝑘 (𝑍)) ≥ 0.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The last probability is a nonlinear function G(.) of only Z and the parameters of the linear approximation.

    “It is generally assumed (McFadden, 1980;Wooldridge, 2010) that the last probability is a nonlinear function G(.) of only Z and the parameters of the linear approximation, βj, j=1,…7, which can be subsumed to a J-column matrix, β, such that P(y = j|Z) = G(Z,β).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The relationship between each pair of life quality outcome groups is the same.

    “This model assumes that the relationship between each pair of life quality outcome groups (e.g. 1 to 2 and 2 to 3) is the same.”
13 of 13

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Figure 3 reports different cattle and soy mean incomes from the supplementary table

    Major

    Figure 3 reports mean per-hectare income of US$372 for cattle and US$926 for soy. Table A3.3 reports US$250 and US$1,002, respectively, for those same land uses.

  • Correlation matrix gives two values for land title and southeastern origin

    Minor

    The Origin-Southeast row gives its correlation with definitive title as 0.38***, but the Defn.Title row gives the correlation with Origin-Southeast as 0.03.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. da Silva, J. G. 2009. Zero hunger and territories of citizenship: promoting food security in Brazil's rural areas. Pages 367-374 in J. von Braun, R. Vargas Hill, R. Pandya-Lorch, editors. The poorest and hungry: assessments, analyses and actions. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., USA.
  2. Reardon, T., and S. A. Vosti. 1995. Links between rural poverty and the environment in developing countries: asset categories and investment poverty. World Development 23(9):1495-1506. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)00061-G Ribot, J. C., and N. L. Peluso. 2003. A theory of access. Rural Sociology 68:153-181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2003. · DOI
  3. Valentim, J., and R. Garrett. 2016. Promoção do Bem-Estar dos Produtores Familiares com uso de Sistemas de Produção Agropecuários e Florestais de Baixo Carbono no Bioma Amazônia. Pages 73-98 in A. A. Azevedo, M. Campanili, and C. Pereira, editors. Caminhos para uma Agricultura Familiar sob Bases Ecológicas: Produzindo com Baixa Emissão de Carbono. Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia, Belém, Brasil.

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Authors
Garrett, R. D., Gardner, T. A., Morello, T. F., Marchand, S., Barlow, J., Ezzine de Blas, D., Ferreira, J., Lees, A. C., & Parry, L.
Affiliations
  • Boston University (US)
  • Stockholm Environment Institute (SE)
  • Universidade Federal do ABC (BR)
  • Lancaster University (GB)
  • Embrapa (BR)
  • Manchester Metropolitan University (GB)
  • Universidade Federal do Pará (BR)
ORCID
Venue
Ecology and Society
Publisher
Resilience Alliance, Inc.
Published
2017
Volume
22
Issue
3
ISSN
1708-3087 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.5751/es-09364-220327
OpenAlex
W2749354405
Cited by
140
References
76
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 2
FWCI
8.71
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
  • Ecology and Society (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) (acceptedVersion)
  • HAL (submittedVersion)
  • Agritrop (Cirad) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • OpenBU (Boston University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation (1415352)
  • Harvard University
  • Government of the United Kingdom
  • Nature Conservancy (NE/F01614X/1)
  • Svenska Forskningsrådet Formas (2013‐1571)
  • Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (02.08.06.005.00, SEG:02.08.06.005.00)
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq 574008/2008-0, 574008/2008-0, 400640/2012-0, 574008/2008)
  • Economic and Social Research Council (ES/M011542, ES/K010018/1, ES/M011542/1)
  • Natural Environment Research Council (NE/K016431/1, NE/G000816/1, NE/M017508/1, NE/l018123/1, NE/F015356/2, NE/F01614X/1)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › General Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Agriculture, Land Use, Rural Development
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Land Rights and Reforms
Keywords
Brazilian Amazon, deforestation, land use change, poverty, environmental degradation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-03.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-03.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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