Dietary Patterns, Eating Behavior, and Nutrient Intakes of Spanish Preschool Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Open accessAbstract
Eating behavior problems are characteristic of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) with a highly restricted range of food choices, which may pose an associated risk of nutritional problems. Hence, detailed knowledge of the dietary patterns (DPs) and nutrient intakes of ASD patients is necessary to carry out intervention strategies if required. The present study aimed to determine the DPs and macro-and micronutrient intakes in a sample of Spanish preschool children with ASD compared to typically developing control children. Fifty-four children with ASD (two to six years of age) diagnosed with ASD according to the Diagnostic Manual-5 criteria), and a control group of 57 typically developing children of similar ages were recruited. A validated food frequency questionnaire was used, and the intake of energy and nutrients was estimated through three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations. DPs were assessed using principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis. Children with ASD exhibited a DP characterized by high energy and fat intakes and a low intake of vegetables and fruits. Likewise, meat intake of any type, both lean and fatty, was associated with higher consumption of fish and dietary fat. Furthermore, the increased consumption of dairy products was associated with increased consumption of cereals and pasta. In addition, they had frequent consumption of manufactured products with poor nutritional quality, e.g., beverages, sweets, snacks and bakery products. The percentages of children with ASD complying with the adequacy of nutrient intakes were higher for energy, saturated fat, calcium, and vitamin C, and lower for iron, iodine, and vitamins of group B when compared with control children. In conclusion, this study emphasizes the need to assess the DPs and nutrient intakes of children with ASD to correct their alterations and discard some potential nutritional diseases.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This case-control study found that Spanish preschool children with ASD had distinct dietary patterns marked by higher cereals/pasta and dairy intake, lower lean meat/eggs, and poor fruit/vegetable and fish intake compared with typically developing controls. Nutrient adequacy differed by group, with ASD children more often meeting recommendations for energy, saturated fat, calcium, and vitamin C but less often for iron, iodine, and B-group vitamins.
Key findings
- Among 54 children with ASD (2–6 years) and 57 controls, ASD children consumed more cereals and pasta and milk/dairy products, and fewer lean meats, eggs, and beverages; both groups consumed excess fatty meats and >85% consumed more beverages, snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry than recommended.
- ASD dietary patterns featured high energy and fat intake, low vegetables and fruits, and associations between increased dairy and cereals/pasta, and between meat intake and higher fish and dietary fat.
- Eating behavior differed: 42% of ASD children tolerated solid foods, while 58% tolerated only pureed foods; all controls tolerated solid foods.
- Nutrient adequacy: 79% of ASD children had adequate calcium intake vs about 50% of controls; 100% of ASD children did not meet the AI for iodine; fiber was not reached by about 51% of ASD children vs 23.4% of controls (p = 0.085); significantly higher percentages of ASD children did not meet EFSA guidelines for vitamins B1, B2, B6, and B12.
Methods
- Observational case-control study in Córdoba, Spain: 54 children with ASD diagnosed by DSM-5 and ADOS, and 57 typically developing controls of similar age, from similar economic/sociocultural backgrounds.
- Dietary assessment used a validated food frequency questionnaire and three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations (two weekdays, one weekend day); nutrient adequacy was compared with EFSA recommendations and SENC food-based guidelines.
- Dietary patterns were derived using principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis, with additional two-step cluster analysis; between-group comparisons used t-tests, Mann-Whitney U tests, and Chi-square tests.
Limitations
- Stated: the study focused on a specific population of ASD children in southern Spain, so results should be cross-validated in other Spanish regions and countries; the ASD sample was very homogeneous in cultural and socioeconomic aspects; gastrointestinal symptoms that could affect dietary patterns and nutrient intakes were not evaluated.
- Evident: the sample size was small (54 ASD, 57 controls), limiting generalizability; dietary intake relied on memory-based FFQ and 24-h dietary registrations, which the authors note incorporate systematic errors and biases; day-to-day variation in individual intake can distort usual intake estimates despite repeated 24-h recalls.
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Integrity signals
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Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 38 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
The percentage of ASD children who had an intake of saturated fat above the guidelines was higher compared with control children.
“the percentage of ASD children who had an intake of saturated fat above the guidelines was higher compared with that of the control children.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Children with ASD consumed fewer lean meat, eggs, and beverages than the control group.
“in contrast, ASD children consumed fewer lean meat, eggs, and beverages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Most subjects in both groups did not reach the adequate intake for magnesium.
“most of the subjects in both groups did not reach the AI for magnesium.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
The intake of sugars in both groups was higher than recommended in the majority of children.
“the intake of sugars in both groups was higher than recommended in the majority of children.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Within the ASD patient groups (solid vs pureed), significant differences were obtained in vegetables, fruit, fish, and fatty meats (p < 0.05).
“significant differences were obtained in vegetables, fruit, fish, and fatty meats (p < 0.05)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingnone given
All control children tolerated solid foods.
“All control children tolerated solid foods.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Within the first food cluster, ASD children exhibited low consumption of lean meat and eggs, snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry, fats, and beverages compared with control children.
“Within the first food cluster, ASD children exhibited low consumption of lean meat and eggs, snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry, fats, and beverages compared with the control population’s children.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
In the ASD group, the third PCA component included related consumption of milk and dairy products and cereals and pasta.
“The third component included the related consumption of milk and dairy products and cereals and pasta.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingnone given
In the present work, except for dairy products, a relatively high proportion of children with ASD complied with the recommended food consumption guidelines of the SENC for pediatrics.
“In the present work, except for dairy products, a relatively high proportion of children with ASD complied with the recommended food consumption guidelines of the SENC for pediatrics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Children with ASD consumed more milk and dairy products than the control group.
“Children with ASD consumed more cereals and pasta, and milk and dairy products than the control group”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“children with ASD showed a DP characterized by relatively high consumption of cereals, pasta and dairy products”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
In the ASD group, the first PCA component showed an unhealthy pattern characterized by a high relationship between low consumption of fruits and vegetables and increased consumption of snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry, and beverages.
“the ASD group’s first component showed an unhealthy pattern characterized by a high relationship between low consumption of fruits and vegetables and increased consumption of snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry, and beverages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
A higher percentage of ASD children consumed four to six servings per day of cereals and pasta compared with the control group.
“A higher percentage of ASD children consumed four to six servings per day of cereals and pasta compared with the control group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
More than 85% of both ASD and control children consumed more servings than recommended for beverages, snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry.
“more than 85% of both ASD and control children consumed more servings than those recommended for beverages, snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Iron, zinc, copper, and manganese intakes were lower than the corresponding adequate intake in most ASD and control children.
“the iron, zinc, copper, and manganese intakes were lower than the corresponding AI in most ASD and in the control group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
The usual individual intakes of vitamins D, E and B9 were below the recommended adequate intake in most ASD and control children.
“the usual individual intakes of vitamins D, E and B9 were below the recommended AI in most of ASD and control children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Adequacies of phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium intake were similar in both groups.
“Adequacies of phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium intake were similar in both groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
The intake of total polyunsaturated fatty acids was similar in both groups of children.
“The intake of total polyunsaturated fatty acids was similar in both groups of children.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Children with ASD consumed more cereals and pasta than the control group.
“Children with ASD consumed more cereals and pasta, and milk and dairy products than the control group”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“children with ASD showed a DP characterized by relatively high consumption of cereals, pasta and dairy products”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
In control children, the first PCA component was associated with a healthy pattern including fruit and vegetables, fish, and lean meats and eggs.
“In the control children, the first component was associated with a healthy pattern that included fruit and vegetables, fish, and lean meats and eggs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Both ASD and control groups had a higher intake of protein than recommended by EFSA.
“Both ASD and the control group had a higher intake of protein than recommended by EFSA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Significantly higher percentages of ASD children did not meet the EFSA guidelines for vitamin B1, B2, B6, and B12 compared with control children.
“we observed significantly higher percentages of ASD children that did not meet the EFSA guidelines for vitamin B1, B2, B6, and B12 when compared with the control children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
Both groups of children consumed an excess of fatty meats and their foodstuffs.
“both groups of children consumed an excess of fatty meats and their foodstuffs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
A significantly higher percentage of ASD children consumed more than six servings of milk and dairy products compared with control children.
“A significantly higher percentage of ASD children consumed more than six servings of milk and dairy products compared with the control children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
A high percentage of ASD children consumed less than three servings per week of lean meats and eggs compared to control children.
“A high percentage of ASD children consumed less than three servings/wk of lean meats and eggs compared to the control children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingnone given
There was higher consumption of snacks, sweets, and baked goods in ASD patients compared with the SENC recommendations.
“One aspect of interest is the higher consumption of snacks, sweets, and baked goods in ASD patients compared with the SENC recommendations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
- Findingown data
In our sample, the intake of saturated fat was higher than in their control peers.
“even the intake of saturated fat was higher than in their control peers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the present study, we reported differential dietary patterns between children with ASD and children from the control using both PCA and hierarchical clustering analysis.
“In the present study, we reported differential DPs between children with ASD and children from the control using both PCA and hierarchical clustering analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
In the present study, patients with ASD had a higher calcium intake than typically developing controls.
“In the present study, patients with ASD had a higher calcium intake than typically developing controls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The families of the children with ASD usually had jars of comminuted food, preferably chicken or beef with vegetables, and to a lesser extent fatty meats and fish.
“the families mentioned they usually had jars of comminuted food, preferably chicken or beef with vegetables, and to a lesser extent fatty meats and fish.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In our sample, more than half of the children with ASD consumed a high percentage of pureed foods, particularly fruits, vegetables, fish, and fatty meats, despite being over two years old.
“more than half of our children with ASD consumed a high percentage of pureed foods, particularly fruits, vegetables, fish, and fatty meats, despite being over two years old”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In our sample, the intake of fat for a majority of the ASD children complied with the recommendations.
“the intake of fat for a majority of the ASD children complied with the recommendations”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In our sample, the average daily intake of EPA + DHA in ASD children did not differ significantly from that observed in the control children.
“that value did not differ significantly from that observed in the control children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Dietary complications are more common among children with ASD than among the population during the first year of life from the time of introducing complementary foods.
“The dietary complications are more common among children with ASD than among the population during the first year of life from the time of introducing the complementary foods [8].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Brzoska, A., Kazek, B., Koziol, K., Kapinos-Gorczyca, A., Ferlewicz, M., Babraj, A., Makosz-Raczek, A., Likus, W., Paprocka, J., and Matusik, P. (2021). Eating Behaviors of Children with Autism-Pilot Study. Nutrients, 13. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Children with ASD tend to eat less from food groups like vegetables, fruit and dairy products than children with typical development.
“children with ASD tend to eat less from food groups like vegetables, fruit and dairy products than children with typical development [21].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] Canals-Sans, J., Esteban-Figuerola, P., Morales-Hidalgo, P., and Arija, V. (2021). Do Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Eat Differently and Less Adequately than Those with Subclinical ASD and Typical Development? EPINED Epidemiological Study. J. Autism Dev. Disord. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductcitation
A previously modified, adapted and validated food frequency questionnaire with portion sizes and food groups usually consumed by the Spanish child population was used.
“A previously modified, adapted and validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) with the portion sizes and food groups usually consumed by the Spanish child population was used [30].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [30] Zazpe, 2010, Relative validity of a semi-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire in an elderly Mediterranean population of Spain, Br. J. Nutr. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Eating behavior problems are characteristic of ASD.
“Eating behavior problems are characteristics of ASD [5,6,7].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [5] 2017, Narratives of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders: Focus on eating behavior, Trends Psychiatry Psychother. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [6] Ledford, 2006, Feeding problems in children with autism spectrum disorders: A review, Focus Autism Other Dev. Disabil. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [7] 2008, Eating disturbances in autism spectrum disorders with focus on adolescent and adult years, Clin. Neuropsychiatry J. Treat. Eval.
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
This work adds further support to previous studies identifying inadequate micronutrient intakes for minerals like iron, iodine, and vitamins of group B in children with ASD.
“Likewise, this work adds further support to previous studies identifying inadequate micronutrient intakes for minerals like iron, iodine, and vitamins of group B.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The difference in calcium intake between ASD patients and controls seems to be due to the increased consumption of dairy products reported by most of the families.
“This difference seems to be due to the increased consumption of dairy products reported by most of the families.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In our sample, the increased consumption of shredded foods and the use of soft foods (porridges made by cereals with milk, homogenized foods) might be due, at least in part, to the presence of minor GI symptoms.
“In our sample, at least in part, the increased consumption of shredded foods as well as the use of soft foods, e.g., porridges made by cereals with milk, and homogenized foods, might be due to the presence of minor GI symptoms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Sharp et al. (2013) and Esteban-Figuerola et al. (2019) reported a lower intake of calcium and protein in autistic children compared with a control group.
“Sharp et al. (2013) [15] and Esteban-Figuerola et al. (2019) [51] have reported a lower intake of calcium and protein in autistic children compared with a control group”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [15] Sharp, 2013, Feeding problems and nutrient intake in children with autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis and comprehensive review of the literature, J. Autism Dev. Disord. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [51] Canals, 2019, Differences in food consumption and nutritional intake between children with autism spectrum disorders and typically developing children: A meta-analysis, Autism source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
We cannot establish whether different eating patterns would affect nutrient intake adequacy.
“thus, we cannot establish whether different eating patterns would affect nutrient intake adequacy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
The sample of ASD children was very homogenous with regard to cultural and socio-economic aspects.
“the sample of ASD children was very homogenous with regard to cultural and socio-economic aspects”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 28
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe majority of ASD children consumed 2-3 servings of fat daily, whereas 22.8% of control children consumed more than 3 servings per day.
“The majority of ASD children consumed 2–3 servings of fat daily, whereas 22.8% of the control children consumed more than 3 servings/d.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe intakes of essential fatty acids linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid were similar; the average energy intake was lower than recommended by EFSA (LA: 1.25% and 1.13%; LNA 0.13% and 0.13%, respectively).
“Even the intakes of essential fatty acids [linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (LNA)] were similar; the average energy intake was lower than that recommended by the EFSA (LA: 1.25% and 1.13%; LNA 0.13% and 0.13%, respectively).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAbout 79% of ASD children had an adequate calcium intake compared with only about 50% in the control group.
“About 79% of ASD children had an adequate calcium intake compared with only about 50% in the control group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe intake of carbohydrates was similar in the two groups of children, with more than 70% following the recommendations.
“The intake of carbohydrates was similar in the two groups of children, with more than 70% following the recommendations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAll ASD children except one and all healthy children were classified into two distinct clusters.
“All ASD children, excepting one subject, and all healthy children, were classified into two distinct clusters”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe intakes of vitamin A and K were similar in both groups, with about one half following the recommendations.
“The intakes of vitamin A and K were similar in both groups, with about one half following the recommendations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe average intake of EPA + DHA was about 0.3 g/d for the control group and 0.15 g/d for ASD children, which is close to the EFSA guidelines.
“The average intake of EPA + DHA was about 0.3 g/d for the control and 0.15 g/d for ASD children, which is close to the EFSA guidelines.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe recommended intake of fiber was not reached by about 51% of ASD children compared with only 23.4% in the healthy control group, although only a statistical trend was found (p = 0.085).
“the recommended intake of fiber was not reached by about 51% of ASD children compared with only 23.4% in the healthy control group, although only a statistical trend was found (p = 0.085).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe majority of ASD children had an adequate energy intake, while about 23% of the control group did not reach the EFSA recommendations.
“The majority of ASD children had an adequate energy intake, while about 23% of the control group did not reach the EFSA recommendations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataASD children showed higher milk and dairy consumption and cereals and pasta for the second food cluster.
“In contrast, ASD children showed higher milk and dairy consumption and cereals and pasta for the second food cluster.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe adequacy of intake was lower in ASD children than in the control group; 100.0% of ASD children did not meet the adequate intake for iodine.
“The adequacy of intake was lower in ASD children than in the control group; in fact, 100.0% of ASD children did not meet the AI for iodine (Table 4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataMost ASD subjects separated well from control subjects because of increased consumption of cereals and pasta and milk and dairy products and relatively lower consumption of lean meat and egg, fatty meats and derivatives, fish and shellfish, beverages, snacks, sweets, and bakery and pastry.
“Most ASD subjects separated well from the control subjects because of the increased consumption of cereals and pasta and milk and dairy products and the relatively lower consumption of lean meat and egg, fatty meats and derivatives, fish and shellfish, beverages, snacks, sweets, and bakery and pastry, compared with the control children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataOf the 54 ASD patients, 42% tolerated solid foods, whereas 58% tolerated only pureed foods.
“Of the ASD 54 patients, 42% tolerated solid foods, whereas 58% tolerated only pureed foods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationThe intake of fruits and vegetables was lower than recommended, mimicking what is usual in the whole Spanish population.
“The intake of fruits and vegetables was lower than that recommended, mimicking what is usual in the whole Spanish population [42,43,44,45].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [42] Madrigal, C., Soto-Mendez, M.J., Hernandez-Ruiz, A., Valero, T., Avila, J.M., Ruiz, E., Villoslada, F.L., Leis, R., Martinez de Victoria, E., and Moreno, J.M. (2020). Energy Intake, Macronutrient Profile and Food Sources of Spanish Children Aged One to <10 Years-Results from the EsNuPI Study. Nutrients, 12. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [43] Partearroyo, T., Samaniego-Vaesken, M.L., Ruiz, E., Aranceta-Bartrina, J., Gil, A., Gonzalez-Gross, M., Ortega, R.M., Serra-Majem, L., and Varela-Moreiras, G. (2019). Current Food Consumption amongst the Spanish ANIBES Study Population. Nutrients, 11. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [44] Plaza-Diaz, J., Molina-Montes, E., Soto-Mendez, M.J., Madrigal, C., Hernandez-Ruiz, A., Valero, T., Lara Villoslada, F., Leis, R., Martinez de Victoria, E., and Moreno, J.M. (2020). Clustering of Dietary Patterns and Lifestyles Among Spanish Children in the EsNuPI Study (dagger). Nutrients, 12. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [45] Samaniego-Vaesken, M.L., Partearroyo, T., Valero, T., Rodriguez, P., Soto-Mendez, M.J., Hernandez-Ruiz, A., Villoslada, F.L., Leis, R., Martinez de Victoria, E., and Moreno, J.M. (2020). Carbohydrates, Starch, Total Sugar, Fiber Intakes and Food Sources in Spanish Children Aged One to <10 Years-Results from the EsNuPI Study. Nutrients, 12. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe study found high energy and fat consumption and frequent manufactured products with poor nutritional quality and a low intake of vegetables and fruits in ASD children.
“This highlights high energy and fat consumption and frequently manufactured products with poor nutritional quality and a low intake of vegetables and fruits in ASD children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn our sample, the average daily intake of EPA + DHA in ASD children was about 0.125 g/d, close to the recommendations of the EFSA and other international entities (e.g., FAO-OMS).
“in our sample the average daily intake of EPA + DHA in ASD children was about 0.125 g/d, close to the recommendations of the EFSA and other international entities e.g., FAO-OMS [63]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [63] FAO (2008). Grasas y Ácidos Grasos en Nutrición Humana Consulta de Expertos, Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura [FAO] y la Fundación Iberoamericana de Nutrición [FINUT].
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationIn our sample, the intake of protein was higher than the recommendations and similar to the general population.
“while here the intake of protein was higher than the recommendations and similar to the general population [15,51].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [15] Sharp, 2013, Feeding problems and nutrient intake in children with autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis and comprehensive review of the literature, J. Autism Dev. Disord. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [51] Canals, 2019, Differences in food consumption and nutritional intake between children with autism spectrum disorders and typically developing children: A meta-analysis, Autism source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenThe sample size was calculated assuming a 30% difference in mean plasma docosahexaenoic acid between children with ASD and healthy children, an alpha error of 0.05, a power of 0.90, and 5% dropout.
“The sample size for the study was calculated assuming a 30% difference in the mean for one of the main study variables (plasma level of docosahexaenoic acid) between children with ASD and healthy children, an α error = 0.05, a power of 0.90 (β error of 0.1) and 5% of dropout during the follow-up of the study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren with ASD frequently have significant eating difficulties with a highly restricted range of food choices.
“Children with ASD frequently have significant eating difficulties with a highly restricted range of food choices [3]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Williams, 2000, Eating habits of children with autism, Pediatr. Nurs.
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationChildren with ASD have stronger preferences for energy-dense foods like snacks, sweets, sugary beverages and juice than children with typical development.
“they found stronger preferences for energy-dense foods like snacks, sweets, sugary beverages and juice in children with ASD.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] Canals-Sans, J., Esteban-Figuerola, P., Morales-Hidalgo, P., and Arija, V. (2021). Do Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Eat Differently and Less Adequately than Those with Subclinical ASD and Typical Development? EPINED Epidemiological Study. J. Autism Dev. Disord. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe use of nutritional supplements such as omega-3 fatty acids and multivitamins, as well as a gluten-free casein-free diet, is not supported by current scientific evidence.
“the use of nutritional supplements e.g., those containing omega-3 fatty acids [25], multivitamins, as well as a gluten-free casein-free diet [26], is not supported by the current scientific evidence”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [25] Posar, 2016, Complementary and alternative medicine in autism: The question of omega-3, Pediatr. Ann. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [26] Hopf, 2016, Use and perceived effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine to treat and manage the symptoms of autism in children: A survey of parents in a community population, J. Altern. Complement. Med. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThere were no significant differences in weight, height, and body mass index between the ASD and control groups.
“There were no significant differences in weight, height, and body mass index (BMI) between the two groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThere is consensus that children with ASD have selective dietary patterns, food neophobia and sensory issues.
“there is consensus that children with ASD have selective dietary patterns (DPs), food neophobia and sensory issues [4]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Ranjan, 2015, Nutritional status of individuals with autism spectrum disorders: Do we know enough?, Adv. Nutr. source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductcitationIntake of energy and nutrients was estimated from three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations following the EFSA Guidance on the EU Menu Methodology.
“The intake of energy and nutrients was estimated from the data obtained through three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations (24-h-DR), registered by parents, including two weekdays and one weekend day, following the Guidance on the EU Menu Methodology of the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) [32].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) (2013). Scientific Opinion on nutrient requirements and dietary intakes of infants and young children in the European Union. EFSA J., 11, 3408. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationA study involving 70 children with ASD with severe food selectivity found that 67% of the sample omitted vegetables and 27% omitted fruits.
“a study involving a sample of 70 children with ASD with severe food selectivity, i.e., complete omission of one or more food groups (e.g., fruit, vegetable, protein, grain, dairy) or consuming a narrow range of items weekly (e.g., five or fewer total food items) found that67% of the sample omitted vegetables and 27% omitted fruits [46].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [46] Sharp, 2018, Dietary intake, nutrient status, and growth parameters in children with autism spectrum disorder and severe food selectivity: An electronic medical record review, J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationHigh consumption of snacks, sweets, and baked goods in all Spanish children has been repeatedly reported.
“the high consumption of snacks, sweets, and baked goods in all Spanish children has been repeatedly reported [42,43,44,45]”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [42] Madrigal, C., Soto-Mendez, M.J., Hernandez-Ruiz, A., Valero, T., Avila, J.M., Ruiz, E., Villoslada, F.L., Leis, R., Martinez de Victoria, E., and Moreno, J.M. (2020). Energy Intake, Macronutrient Profile and Food Sources of Spanish Children Aged One to <10 Years-Results from the EsNuPI Study. Nutrients, 12. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [43] Partearroyo, T., Samaniego-Vaesken, M.L., Ruiz, E., Aranceta-Bartrina, J., Gil, A., Gonzalez-Gross, M., Ortega, R.M., Serra-Majem, L., and Varela-Moreiras, G. (2019). Current Food Consumption amongst the Spanish ANIBES Study Population. Nutrients, 11. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [44] Plaza-Diaz, J., Molina-Montes, E., Soto-Mendez, M.J., Madrigal, C., Hernandez-Ruiz, A., Valero, T., Lara Villoslada, F., Leis, R., Martinez de Victoria, E., and Moreno, J.M. (2020). Clustering of Dietary Patterns and Lifestyles Among Spanish Children in the EsNuPI Study (dagger). Nutrients, 12. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [45] Samaniego-Vaesken, M.L., Partearroyo, T., Valero, T., Rodriguez, P., Soto-Mendez, M.J., Hernandez-Ruiz, A., Villoslada, F.L., Leis, R., Martinez de Victoria, E., and Moreno, J.M. (2020). Carbohydrates, Starch, Total Sugar, Fiber Intakes and Food Sources in Spanish Children Aged One to <10 Years-Results from the EsNuPI Study. Nutrients, 12. source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe diagnosis of ASD was assessed following DSM-5 clinical criteria and confirmed with the ADOS.
“The diagnosis of ASD was assessed following the clinical criteria of the DSM-5 and confirmed with the completion of the ADOS.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren with ASD have demonstrated low levels of folate, vitamins B6, and B12, which have been associated with simultaneous B6, B9, and B12 deficiencies leading to the accumulation of homocysteine.
“Children with ASD have also demonstrated low levels of folate, vitamins B6, and B12, which have been associated with simultaneous B6, B9, and B12 deficiencies leading to the accumulation of homocysteine [59,67].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationBased on available evidence, most identified dietary patterns showed good reproducibility, fair relative validity, and good construct validity across different statistical solutions.
“Based on the available evidence, most identified DPs showed good reproducibility, fair relative validity, and good construct validity across different statistical solutions [75].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [75] Edefonti, 2020, Reproducibility and validity of a posteriori dietary patterns: A systematic review, Adv. Nutr. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren with ASD have inadequate micronutrient intakes and are at particular risk for specific inadequacies of vitamins and minerals such as calcium, magnesium, vitamin D, and vitamin E.
“Several studies have shown that children with ASD have inadequate micronutrient intakes [65,66], and they are at particular risk for specific inadequacies of vitamins and minerals such as calcium, magnesium, vitamin D, and vitamin E [39,46,51].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [65] Hyman, 2012, Nutrient intake from food in children with autism, Pediatrics source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [66] Malhi, 2017, Feeding problems and nutrient intake in children with and without autism: A comparative study, Indian J. Pediatr. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [39] Schmitt, 2008, A comparison of nutrient intake and eating behaviors of boys with and without autism, Top. Clin. Nutr. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [46] Sharp, 2018, Dietary intake, nutrient status, and growth parameters in children with autism spectrum disorder and severe food selectivity: An electronic medical record review, J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [51] Canals, 2019, Differences in food consumption and nutritional intake between children with autism spectrum disorders and typically developing children: A meta-analysis, Autism source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenOne of the major limitations of our study is that we focused on a specific population of ASD children living in southern Spain.
“One of the major limitations of our study is that we focused on a specific population of ASD children living in the southern of Spain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationFood selectivity and mealtime problems are common issues in preschoolers, school-age children, and adolescents with ASD, and they are associated with a higher frequency of gastrointestinal symptoms.
“A recent study demonstrates that food selectivity and mealtime problems are common issues in preschoolers, school-age children, and adolescents with ASD, and they are associated with a higher frequency of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms [49,50].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [49] Babinska, K., Celusakova, H., Belica, I., Szapuova, Z., Waczulikova, I., Nemcsicsova, D., Tomova, A., and Ostatnikova, D. (2020). Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Feeding Problems and Their Associations with Dietary Interventions, Food Supplement Use, and Behavioral Characteristics in a Sample of Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [50] Kohane, I.S., McMurry, A., Weber, G., MacFadden, D., Rappaport, L., Kunkel, L., Bickel, J., Wattanasin, N., Spence, S., and Murphy, S. (2012). The co-morbidity burden of children and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE, 7. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenWe did not attempt to evaluate gastrointestinal symptoms that could affect dietary patterns and nutrient intakes.
“Finally, we did not attempt to evaluate gastrointestinal symptoms that could affect DPS and nutrient intakes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThese data do not seem to justify the use of omega 3 as a treatment in ASD, at least in Spain, where familiar consumption of fish is traditionally higher compared to other countries.
“So these data do not seem to justify the use of omega 3 as a treatment in ASD, at least in Spain, where the familiar consumption of fish is traditionally higher compared to other countries [64].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [64] Ministry of Environment and Rural and Marine Affairs (MARM) (2008–2021) (2021, September 01). La Alimentación en España. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Madrid, España: Madrid, Available online: https://www.mapa.gob.es/es/estadistica/temas/estadisticas-pesqueras/default.aspx.
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCompared to children with typical development, preschoolers with ASD consumed fewer vegetables, fish, and eggs, while primary school children consumed fewer legumes, cheese/yogurt, olive oil, citrus fruits, and more meat.
“Compared to children with typical development, preschoolers with ASD consumed fewer vegetables, fish, and eggs, while primary school children consumed fewer legumes, cheese/yogurt, olive oil, citrus fruits, and more meat [21].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] Canals-Sans, J., Esteban-Figuerola, P., Morales-Hidalgo, P., and Arija, V. (2021). Do Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Eat Differently and Less Adequately than Those with Subclinical ASD and Typical Development? EPINED Epidemiological Study. J. Autism Dev. Disord. source
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
The control group is comparable to the ASD group in economic and sociocultural conditions and environmental exposure.
“Both groups lived in the same urban area of Córdoba (Spain), with families in similar economic and sociocultural situations and close environmental exposure.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Parents accurately recorded the three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations.
“three non-consecutive 24-h dietary registrations (24-h-DR), registered by parents”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Plaza-Diaz et al. found higher energy density and elevated saturated fats, calcium, and vitamin C, while showing deficiencies in iron, iodine, and B vitamins such as riboflavin and folic acid.
“In the study mentioned above by Plaza-Diaz et al., the research group was characterized by higher energy density and elevated levels of saturated fats, calcium, and vitamin C, while showing deficiencies in iron, iodine, and B vitamins (such as riboflavin and folic acid) [51].”
From Unraveling the Connections: Eating Issues, Microbiome, and Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Autism Spectrum Disorder (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
Plaza-Diaz et al. found lower intake of fruits and vegetables in ASD children; high fat and high energy foods including juices, snack foods, confectionery, and baked goods characterized dietary choices; increased dairy consumption was associated with greater intake of cereals and pasta; children had lower consumption of lean meat and eggs with excessive intake of fatty meats.
“A lower intake of fruits and vegetables was reported in the ASD children. Foods of high fat and high energy content, including juices, snack foods, confectionery, and baked goods, characterized the subjects’ dietary choices. Additionally, an increase in dairy consumption was associated with a greater intake of cereals and pasta. Children exhibited lower consumption of lean meat and eggs, with”
From Unraveling the Connections: Eating Issues, Microbiome, and Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Autism Spectrum Disorder (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Saturated-fat adequacy is described in opposite ways
MajorThe abstract says a higher percentage of children with ASD complied with the saturated-fat recommendation, but the results say a higher percentage exceeded the guideline. These statements give opposite interpretations of the comparison.
“The percentages of children with ASD complying with the adequacy of nutrient intakes were higher for energy, saturated fat, calcium, and vitamin C”
“the percentage of ASD children who had an intake of saturated fat above the guidelines was higher compared with that of the control children.”
Dairy is called the sole exception to guideline compliance
MinorThe discussion presents dairy products as the exception to relatively high compliance with food-consumption guidelines. Earlier results also report excess fatty-meat consumption and that more than 85% of both groups exceeded the recommended servings of beverages, snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry.
“except for dairy products, a relatively high proportion of children with ASD complied with the recommended food consumption guidelines of the SENC for pediatrics.”
“both groups of children consumed an excess of fatty meats and their foodstuffs. The majority of ASD children consumed 2–3 servings of fat daily, whereas 22.8% of the control children consumed more than 3 servings/d. Finally, more than 85% of both ASD and control children consumed more servings than those recommended for beverages, snacks, sweets, bakery, and pastry.”
Two different average EPA + DHA intakes are reported for ASD children
MinorThe results give the ASD group's average EPA + DHA intake as about 0.15 g/d, while the discussion gives it as about 0.125 g/d.
“The average intake of EPA + DHA was about 0.3 g/d for the control and 0.15 g/d for ASD children”
“in our sample the average daily intake of EPA + DHA in ASD children was about 0.125 g/d”
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- Authors
- Plaza-Diaz, J., Flores-Rojas, K., Torre-Aguilar, M. J. D. L., Gomez-Fernández, A. R., Martín-Borreguero, P., Perez-Navero, J. L., Gil, A., & Gil-Campos, M.
- Affiliations
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Pediatric Research and Metabolism Unit, Maimónides Institute for Biomedical Research of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Reina Sofia University Hospital, University of Córdoba, Av. Menéndez Pidal, s/n, 14010 Córdoba, Spain
- Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (ES)
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-10-10
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 3551
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8541028
- OpenAlex
- W3207106718
- Semantic Scholar
- 29bf5aca1953495ac478096e7d203aa8adcf6c70
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 9
- FWCI
- 6.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Institutional Repository of the University of Granada (University of Granada) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- RISalud Institutional Health Repository of Andalucía (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- FUNDACIÓ AGRUPACIÓ (Àmbit de la Infància)
- Spanish Society of Pediatrics and Red de Salud Materno Infantil (RED SAMID) (404 Research Grant INVEST)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, preschool children, dietary habits, nutrient intake, picky eating, energy intake, dietary fat, fruit and vegetable intake, dairy products, processed foods, micronutrient deficiency, nutritional status
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Child Nutritional Physiological Phenomena, Child, Preschool, Diet, Diet Surveys, Eating, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Nutritive Value, Spain, Case-Control Studies
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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