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Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review
Open accessAbstract
At a developmental age, adequate physical activity is fundamental to overall health and well-being and preventing obesity. Moreover, establishing active behavior can help children and adolescents meet their growth and neurodevelopmental goals. Nutritional requirements vary according to intensity, frequency, and practiced physical activity or sport; therefore, pediatricians should give children and adolescents and their families adequate counseling, avoiding both nutrient deficiencies and excessive or inadequate supplement intake. The focus should be not only on sports performance but also on the child’s well-being, growth, and neurodevelopment. Our narrative review aims to discuss the nutritional needs of children and adolescents who practice physical activity, non-competitive sports activity, and elite sports activity while also analyzing the role of food supplements and the risk of eating disorders within this category of subjects.
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Overview
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TL;DR
This narrative review discusses nutritional needs of children and adolescents engaged in physical activity, non-competitive sports, and elite sports, including macronutrients, hydration, micronutrients, supplements, and eating disorders. It concludes that age-appropriate nutrition and hydration are usually sufficient for non-elite young athletes, while elite athletes require multidisciplinary support and only selected supplement use under medical/nutritional supervision.
Key findings
- Energy requirements vary by activity, growth, and development; general estimates for adolescent athletes are approximately 3640 ± 830 kcal/day for males and 3100 ± 720 kcal/day for females, with physical activity contributing about 25–30% of total daily energy expenditure in non-athletic individuals. PAL adjustments of 0.15, 0.3, or 0.6 are suggested for children doing 30 min moderate activity ≥5 days/week, 60 min vigorous sports 5 times/week, or intense aerobic competitive sports, respectively.
- Carbohydrate recommendations include 50–55% of intake (about 6–10 g/kg) for normal physical activity, at least 50% for high-performance sports, and up to about 70% for exceptionally intense exercise; competition-day timing includes 4 g/kg in the 3–4 h before activity, 0.5–1 g/kg in the hour before, 0.7 g/kg/hour during activity in 15–20 min intervals, and 1–1.5 g/kg post-activity. For elite athletes, endurance exercise of 1–3 h/day requires 6–10 g/kg/day CHO, extreme exercise of 4–5 h/day requires 8–12 g/kg/day, and post-exercise recovery uses 1–1.2 g/kg per hour of training.
- Protein should contribute 10–15% of daily calories; post-exercise recovery may require about 0.11 g/kg/hour or roughly 1.5 g/kg/day (e.g., about 0.3 g/kg at five mealtimes). Elite adolescent athletes are advised to follow adult protein guidelines of about 1.3–1.8 g/kg/day, and usual intake of 1.2–1.6 g/kg/day is consistent with adult recommendations, so protein supplements are not necessary.
- Hydration and micronutrients are emphasized: 13 mL/kg per hour of exercise is suggested, water is sufficient for activities under 60 min, calcium intake of 1300 mg/day is recommended for ages 9–18 years, vitamin D at least 600 IU/day for ages 1–18 years, and iron supplementation is recommended for deficiency or anemia. Supplement use is common in young athletes (82.2% in one study, 60.6% male; 43 of 44 swimmers reported at least one dietary supplement), while eating disorder data include 44.9% of 78 elite swimmers positive on at least one ED questionnaire, 24% of 36 female figure skaters with a clinically significant ED, and 11% of females versus 3% of males in elite handball.
Methods
- Narrative review; MEDLINE–PubMed was searched for publications from 1990 to 2024, including randomized placebo-controlled trials, controlled clinical trials, double-blind randomized controlled studies, and systematic reviews.
- Keywords combined nutrition/nutritional habits, children/adolescents/pediatric, physical activity/non-competitive sports/elite sport/eating disorders/dietary patterns/food supplements/energy drinks/sports drinks; reference lists were manually searched, and only English-language full papers were included.
- The paper synthesizes guidelines, position statements, trials, and observational studies rather than conducting a systematic review or meta-analysis.
Limitations
- The paper states that there is a lack of randomized controlled trials on creatine safety in adolescents, little data on protein demand in elite young athletes, limited evidence on sports drinks among adolescent athletes, and a lack of rigorous studies on omega-3 supplements in pediatric athletes; it also notes inconsistent findings on supplement prevalence and calls for larger sample sizes and longer observation periods.
- It is a narrative review, not a systematic review, with no described risk-of-bias assessment or formal quality appraisal; this limitation is evident from the text.
- Many recommendations are drawn from adult athletes or general public health guidelines because pediatric-specific evidence is limited; the paper states, for example, that most available protein-demand studies refer to the adult population and that competitive adolescent athletes should follow elite adult athletes’ protein guidelines.
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In the paper
“National swimmers (older and more experienced swimmers with higher performance) mainly used individual health supplements (vitamin D3, omega-3 fatty acids, multivitamins, zinc), followed by sports supplements (mainly protein powder) and ergogenic aids (caffeine, creatine, beta-alanine, and sodium bicarbonate).”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 6. Food Supplements for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport > 6.5. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [77] Newbury, J.W., Sparks, S.A., Cole, M., Kelly, A.L., and Gough, L.A. (2023). Nutritional Supplement Use in a UK High-Performance Swimming Club. Nutrients, 15. source
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In the paper
“Juhàsz et al. showed that creatine led to increased power, improved time in the 100 m, and reduced post-exercise lactate.”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 6. Food Supplements for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport > 6.3. Creatine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [71] Csende, 2009, Creatine supplementation improves the anaerobic performance of elite junior fin swimmers, Acta Physiol. Hung. source
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In the paper
“A single study conducted by Wang et al. evaluated the effect of creatine on young canoeists, showing that creatine can increase maximal upper-body muscle strength without affecting explosive power or post-activation potentiation time [72].”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 6. Food Supplements for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport > 6.3. Creatine
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [72] Wang, C.C., Lin, S.C., Hsu, S.C., Yang, M.T., and Chan, K.H. (2017). Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Muscle Strength and Optimal Individual Post-Activation Potentiation Time of the Upper Body in Canoeists. Nutrients, 9. source
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In the paper
“The authors highlighted an increasing energy intake after an exercise session (morning session of cycling) compared to a rugby session (traditional rugby training session) (p < 0.01) and a control session (inactivity throughout the day) (p < 0.001).”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 7. Sport and Special Diets > 7.1. Eating Behaviors in Young Athletes
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [81] Thivel, 2015, Nutritional responses to acute training sessions in young elite rugby players, Appetite source
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In the paper
“Increasing supplement intake was directly proportional to age and type of performance.”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 6. Food Supplements for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport > 6.5. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [77] Newbury, J.W., Sparks, S.A., Cole, M., Kelly, A.L., and Gough, L.A. (2023). Nutritional Supplement Use in a UK High-Performance Swimming Club. Nutrients, 15. source
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In the citing paper
“their ventilatory responses during exercise are amplified, likely due to a lower CO2 threshold [10,11]”
From Use of Nutritional Strategies, Bioactive Compounds, and Dietary Supplements in Young Athletes: From Evidence to Potential Risks—A Narrative Review (2025) · cites this paper as [10]
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In the paper
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 5. Nutrition for Young Elite Athletes > 5.1. Energy Requirements
“In a report published by the Food Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations University (UNU), energy requirements for boys and girls participating in heavy physical activity are defined [13].”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > References
“13. McKinney J. Velghe J. Fee J. Isserow S. Drezner J.A. Defining Athletes and Exercisers Am. J. Cardiol. 2019 123 532 535”
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In the paper
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 5. Nutrition for Young Elite Athletes > 5.2. Macronutrients
“The SDA asserted that a competitive adolescent athlete should follow the elite adult athletes’ guidelines regarding protein requirements (around 1.3–1.8 gr/kg/day), since in the majority of adolescent athletes, the daily protein intake (1.2–1.6 gr/kg/day) is consistent with the adult recommendations and there is therefore no need for any protein supplementation to reach a positive nitrogen balance for adolescents participating in heavy exercise [46].”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > References
“46. Nemet D. Eliakim A. Pediatric sports nutrition: An update Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2009 12 304 309”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 5. Nutrition for Young Elite Athletes > 5.2. Macronutrients
“According to Burke et al., during an endurance exercise program (1–3 h/day), athletes need 6–10 gr/kg/day of CHOs, whereas during an extreme exercise program (4–5 h/day), the CHO intake required is 8–12 gr/kg/day.”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > References
“44. World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and United Nations University Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 4. Nutritional Advice for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Physical Activity > 4.4. Hydration
“Moreover, children have a lower sweating capacity, which limits their ability to dissipate body heat through evaporation.”
§ Nutrition for Children and Adolescents Who Practice Sport: A Narrative Review > 5. Nutrition for Young Elite Athletes > 5.2. Macronutrients
“children have a higher ratio of body surface area to body mass than adults, which leads to a higher amount of heat dissipation through sweat”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Capra, M. E., Stanyevic, B., Giudice, A., Monopoli, D., Decarolis, N. M., Esposito, S., & Biasucci, G.
- Affiliations
- Guglielmo da Saliceto Hospital (IT)
- University of Parma (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Esposito, Susanna
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2024-08-22
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 16
- Pages
- 2803
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11357223
- OpenAlex
- W4401765870
- Cited by
- 66
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 6
- FWCI
- 4.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Keywords
- child nutrition, adolescent nutrition, sports nutrition, physical activity, elite athletes, non-competitive sports, nutrient requirements, dietary supplements, eating disorders, growth, brain development, obesity prevention, pediatric counseling
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Feeding and Eating Disorders, Child, Child Nutritional Physiological Phenomena, Female, Humans, Male, Nutritional Requirements, Nutritional Status, Sports, Exercise, Dietary Supplements
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-14, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-14 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
