A Systematic Review of Perception System and Simulators for Autonomous Vehicles Research

Rosique, Francisca; Navarro, Pedro J.; Fernández, Carlos; Padilla, Antonio

doi:10.3390/s19030648

Cited by 469Autonomous Vehicle Technology and SafetyRobotics and Sensor-Based LocalizationVehicle Dynamics and Control Systems

A Systematic Review of Perception System and Simulators for Autonomous Vehicles Research

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Rosique, Francisca, Navarro, Pedro J., Fernández, Carlos, Padilla, Antonio·2019·Sensors

DOI 10.3390/s19030648PMC PMC6387009

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Abstract

This paper presents a systematic review of the perception systems and simulators for autonomous vehicles (AV). This work has been divided into three parts. In the first part, perception systems are categorized as environment perception systems and positioning estimation systems. The paper presents the physical fundamentals, principle functioning, and electromagnetic spectrum used to operate the most common sensors used in perception systems (ultrasonic, RADAR, LiDAR, cameras, IMU, GNSS, RTK, etc.). Furthermore, their strengths and weaknesses are shown, and the quantification of their features using spider charts will allow proper selection of different sensors depending on 11 features. In the second part, the main elements to be taken into account in the simulation of a perception system of an AV are presented. For this purpose, the paper describes simulators for model-based development, the main game engines that can be used for simulation, simulators from the robotics field, and lastly simulators used specifically for AV. Finally, the current state of regulations that are being applied in different countries around the world on issues concerning the implementation of autonomous vehicles is presented.

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The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most common GNSS system freely available to be used in any part of the world.
“The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most common GNSS system freely available to be used in any part of the world [111].”
From Sensor-Based Prognostic Health Management of Advanced Driver Assistance System for Autonomous Vehicles: A Recent Survey (2022) · cites this paper as [111]
Section 3.1 calls GPS the best-known GNSS system and says its signals can reach receivers anywhere on Earth, supporting its prominence and global coverage. It does not say GPS is freely available; the copy therefore supports only part of the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Pure vision-based system has advantages like affordability and simplicity of implementation.
“It is mentioned that a pure vision-based system has advantages like affordability and simplicity of implementation.”
From Object Detection in Autonomous Vehicles under Adverse Weather: A Review of Traditional and Deep Learning Approaches (2024) · cites this paper as [48]
Section 2.4 (Cameras; page unavailable) describes visible cameras as low-cost, supporting the affordability point. It does not say that a purely vision-based system is simple to implement; it notes processing demands and the use of radar and LiDAR to improve robustness. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Simulation-based testing for autonomous driving includes software simulation like CarSim and CARLA.
“Such simulation not only includes software simulation like CarSim and CARLA. but also includes hybrid realization with hardware-in-the-loop or vehicle-in-the-loop design [67].”
From Trustworthy AI: From Principles to Practices (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
Section 5.4 identifies CARLA as an autonomous-driving simulator, and Section 5.1 describes software-in-the-loop, hardware-in-the-loop, and vehicle-hardware-in-the-loop testing (page numbers not provided). The passages found do not identify CarSim; Section 5.1 names CarMaker instead. Thus the simulation approaches and CARLA example are supported, but the CarSim example is not verified by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Simulation-based testing for autonomous driving includes hybrid realization with hardware-in-the-loop or vehicle-in-the-loop design.
“Such simulation not only includes software simulation like CarSim and CARLA. but also includes hybrid realization with hardware-in-the-loop or vehicle-in-the-loop design [67].”
From Trustworthy AI: From Principles to Practices (2023) · cites this paper as [67]

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Authors: Rosique, F., Navarro, P. J., Fernández, C., & Padilla, A.
Affiliations: Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (ES)
Corresponding author: Rosique, Francisca
Navarro, Pedro J.
ORCID: Rosique, Francisca
Navarro, Pedro J.
Fernández, Carlos
Venue: Sensors
Publisher: MDPI AG
Published: 2019-02-05
Volume: 19
Issue: 3
Pages: 648
ISSN: 1424-8220 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3390/s19030648
PMC: PMC6387009
OpenAlex: W2912493354
Cited by: 469
References: 63
Citations by year: 2026: 34 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 96 · 2022: 71 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 17 · 2015: 1
FWCI: 5.47
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
dx.doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Sensors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Digital Repository (Polytechnic University of Cartagena) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders: Dirección General de Tráfico (SPIP2017-02286)
Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (BFU2017-88300-C2-2-R)
Fundación Séneca (19895/GERM/15)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Vehicle Dynamics and Control Systems
Keywords: autonomous vehicles, perception systems, vehicle simulator, sensor comparison, ultrasonic sensors, radar, LiDAR, camera, inertial measurement unit, GNSS, RTK, game engines, model-driven engineering, autonomous vehicle regulation

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A Systematic Review of Perception System and Simulators for Autonomous Vehicles Research

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