Sensor-Based Prognostic Health Management of Advanced Driver Assistance System for Autonomous Vehicles: A Recent Survey

May combine two claims.

Ultrasonic sensor performance can be degraded via vehicle corner error, temperature variation and relative humidity, false echoes caused by turbulence, and acoustic or electric noise.

“Ultrasonic sensor performance can be degraded via vehicle corner error [16], temperature variation and relative humidity [17], false echoes caused by turbulence [18], and acoustic or electric noise [19].”

• cites [16] Park, W.J., Kim, B.S., Seo, D.E., Kim, D.S., and Lee, K.H. (2008, January 4–6). Parking Space Detection Using Ultrasonic Sensor in Parking Assistance System. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, Eindhoven, The Netherlands. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [17] Grooten, 2010, High Accuracy Acoustic Relative Humidity Measurement in Duct Flow with Air, Sensors sourcePartly supported

  Citation [17] is attached to temperature variation and relative humidity, not the other listed errors. The Introduction says both affect the speed of sound, and Dynamic Response says temperature fluctuations can delay or distort the acoustic humidity measurement. The paper uses changes in relative humidity as the quantity to be measured; it does not establish that humidity itself degrades sensor performance. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [18] Alonso, 2011, Ultrasonic Sensors in Urban Traffic Driving-Aid Systems, Sensors sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

A film on the sensor cover, such as water, ice, dust, snow, or salt, can prevent objects from being detected (false negatives), from being seen (false positives), or from being correctly classified.

“A film on the sensor cover, such as water, ice, dust, snow, or salt, can prevent objects from being detected (false negatives), from being seen (false positives), or from being correctly classified [40,41].”

• cites [40] Bellanco, 2021, A Review of the Fault Behavior of Heat Pumps and Measurements, Detection and Diagnosis Methods Including Virtual Sensors, J. Build. Eng. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [41] Rajpoot, 2021, A Dynamic-SUGPDS Model for Faults Detection and Isolation of Underground Power Cable Based on Detection and Isolation Algorithm and Smart Sensors, J. Electr. Eng. Technol. sourceCould not verify

  Section 2.1.3 describes classifying underground power-cable faults from electrical measurements, not detecting objects through a sensor cover. A search for sensor-cover films, water, ice, dust, snow, salt, false positives, and false negatives found no passage addressing the claimed effects. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most common GNSS system freely available to be used in any part of the world.

“The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most common GNSS system freely available to be used in any part of the world [111].”

• cites [111] Rosique, F., Navarro, P.J., Fernández, C., and Padilla, A. (2019). A Systematic Review of Perception System and Simulators for Autonomous Vehicles Research. Sensors, 19. sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.1 calls GPS the best-known GNSS system and says its signals can reach receivers anywhere on Earth, supporting its prominence and global coverage. It does not say GPS is freely available; the copy therefore supports only part of the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All kinds of autonomous vehicles require a positioning system to locate their position.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is the most widespread technology used for positioning.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mie scattering can be applied if the particle is of a similar size to the laser wavelength.

“Mie scattering can be applied if the particle is of a similar size to the wavelength [43].”

• cites [43] Goelles, T., Schlager, B., and Muckenhuber, S. (2020). Fault Detection, Isolation, Identification and Recovery (FDIIR) Methods for Automotive Perception Sensors Including a Detailed Literature Survey for Lidar. Sensors, 20. sourceSupported

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The wavelength of LiDAR varies in the range 0.8-1.5 µm according to the laser source.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

LiDAR sensors are currently being used by various companies, such as Google, BMW, and Volvo, to develop autonomous vehicles.

“LiDAR sensors are currently being used by various companies, such as Google [60], BMW, and Volvo [61], to develop autonomous vehicles.”

• cites [60] Poczter, 2013, The Google Car: Driving Toward A Better Future?, JBCS sourceSupported
• cites [61] Yoo, 2018, MEMS-Based Lidar for Autonomous Driving, Elektrotech. Inftech. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ma et al.'s multi-sensor-based parking space recognition method can enhance parking space resources by identifying parking spots in more complex situations.

“This technique can enhance parking space resources by identifying parking spots in more complex situations.”

• cites [103] Ma, S., Jiang, Z., Jiang, H., Han, M., and Li, C. (2020). Parking Space and Obstacle Detection Based on a Vision Sensor and Checkerboard Grid Laser. Appl. Sci., 10. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says the vision-and-laser method can identify parking spaces and obstacles and improve recognition of suitable spaces; Section 4.4 describes identifying valid spaces without parking lines. This supports detection in more challenging situations, but the paper does not establish that the method enhances parking-space resources or their utilization. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sensor validation is used to evaluate the authenticity of a sensor system and adjust or correct it as needed.

“Sensor validation is used to evaluate the authenticity of a sensor system and adjust or correct it as needed [48].”

• cites [48] Vadera, 2006, A Probabilistic Model for Information and Sensor Validation, Comput. J. sourcePartly supported

  Section 2 defines validation as determining whether sensor readings are valid, and Section 3 describes identifying faulty readings. The paper does not say that validation adjusts or corrects the sensor system; its focus is assessing readings and isolating faults. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Various faults, such as erratic, spike, hard-over, and stuck are examples of sensor faults.

“Various faults, such as erratic, spike, hard-over, and stuck are examples of sensor faults [45].”

• cites [45] Biddle, 2021, A Novel Fault Detection, Identification and Prediction Approach for Autonomous Vehicle Controllers Using SVM, Automot. Innov. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Zein et al. applied a mechatronic system, which enabled the GPS tracking system to remember routes taken during supervised driving.

“Elsewhere, Zein et al. applied a mechatronic system, which enabled the GPS tracking system to remember routes taken during supervised driving [118].”

• cites [118] Zein, 2018, GPS Tracking System for Autonomous Vehicles, Alex. Eng. J. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The GPS monitor shown in Figure 13 takes care of the sensor's RTK correction status, the number of active satellites, and the covariance of data provided by the sensor.

“The GPS monitor shown in Figure 13 takes care of the sensor's real-time kinematic (RTK) correction status, the number of active satellites, and the covariance of data provided by the sensor.”

• cites [129] Bijjahalli, 2017, A GNSS Integrity Augmentation System for Airport Ground Vehicle Operations, Energy Procedia sourcePartly supported

  Section 4 (Integrity Thresholds; page unavailable) says the system uses the number of visible satellites to trigger antenna-masking alerts, supporting the satellite-count part. Our copy does not describe a GPS monitor that checks RTK correction status or sensor-data covariance, and its listed figures do not include Figure 13. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Various issues are involved in the development phases of AVs, such as environmental and traffic safety aspects, legal aspects, and moral and ethical aspects.

“In addition, various issues are involved in the development phases of the AVs, such as environmental and traffic safety aspects, legal aspects, and moral and ethical aspects [130].”

• cites [130] Molea, 2017, Current Challenges in Autonomous Driving, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to surveys, depending on the level of advancement, AV technology can be adopted until 2030-2040 in well-developed nations with decent infrastructure.

“According to the surveys, depending on the level of advancement, the AV technology can be adopted until 2030-2040 in well-developed nations with decent infrastructure [137].”

• cites [137] Stoma, M., Dudziak, A., Caban, J., and Droździel, P. (2021). The Future of Autonomous Vehicles in the Opinion of Automotive Market Users. Energies, 14. sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions say AVs may become widespread in 2030–2040 in smaller, well-developed countries with modern infrastructure, such as the Netherlands. The citing sentence omits the restriction to smaller countries and presents that possibility more broadly as adoption in well-developed nations. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

These are important issues when developing a PHM strategy for AV technology.

“To sum up, these are the important issues when developing a PHM strategy for AV technology [49].”

• cites [49] Cheng, 2010, Sensor Systems for Prognostics and Health Management, Sensors sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions and the section on sensor-system selection identify important considerations for PHM applications, including monitoring requirements, reliability, cost, and trade-offs. The paper does not specifically assess those issues for AV technology; that application is an extension made by the citing document. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The proposed method deals with GPS issues, such as multipath of signal, complete loss of signal, and antenna masking.

“The proposed method deals with GPS issues, such as multipath of signal, complete loss of signal, and antenna masking.”

• cites [129] Bijjahalli, 2017, A GNSS Integrity Augmentation System for Airport Ground Vehicle Operations, Energy Procedia sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Tremendous research work has been carried out to perform the FDI of AV camera sensors.

“Tremendous research work has been carried out to perform the FDI of AV camera sensors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Faults in GPS/GNN occur due to anomalies in different segments of the positioning sensors, i.e., receiver malfunction in the user segment, clock anomalies in the space segment, and satellite broadcast anomalies due to the control segment.

“Faults in GPS/GNN occur due to anomalies in different segments of the positioning sensors, i.e., receiver malfunction in the user segment, clock anomalies in the space segment, and satellite broadcast anomalies due to the control segment [20].”

• cites [20] Blanch, J., Walter, T., and Enge, P. (2016, January 25–28). A Simple Satellite Exclusion Algorithm for Advanced RAIM. Proceedings of the 2016 International Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, Monterey, CA, USA. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Continual use of multiple sensors and actuators of the ADAS can lead to failure of AV sensors.

“However, continual use of multiple sensors and actuators of the ADAS can lead to failure of AV sensors.”

May combine two claims.

RADAR failures can be caused by cyberattack and environmental conditions.

“In addition, various reasons have been listed that have led to RADAR failures, such as cyberattack [15] and environmental conditions [16].”

• cites [15] Woongsun, J., Ali, Z., and Rajesh, R. (2019, January 8–11). Resilient Control Under Cyber-Attacks in Connected ACC Vehicles. Proceedings of the ASME 2019 Dynamic Systems and Control Conference, Park City, UT, USA.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [16] Park, W.J., Kim, B.S., Seo, D.E., Kim, D.S., and Lee, K.H. (2008, January 4–6). Parking Space Detection Using Ultrasonic Sensor in Parking Assistance System. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, Eindhoven, The Netherlands. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Camera quality can be affected by multiple factors, such as lens occlusion or soiling, environmental and weather conditions, optical faults, and visibility distance.

“For instance, camera quality can be affected by multiple factors, such as lens occlusion or soiling, environmental and weather conditions, optical faults, and visibility distance [13].”

• cites [13] Duran, 2022, Vehicle-to-Vehicle Distance Estimation Using Artificial Neural Network and a Toe-in-Style Stereo Camera, Measurement sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The primary purpose of ADAS sensors is to improve the safety of passengers and the vehicle itself, which is the primary justification for developing AVs.

“The primary purpose of these sensors is to improve the safety of passengers and the vehicle itself, which is the primary justification for developing AVs [10].”

• cites [10] You, 2021, A Novel LiDAR Sensor Alignment Inspection System for Automobile Productions Using 1-D Photodetector Arrays, Measurement sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

LiDAR failure occurs due to read position data, shortcircuit and overvoltage, misalignment of the optical receiver, and fault in the optical filter mirror motor.

“Similarly, LiDAR failure occurs due to read position data, shortcircuit and overvoltage, misalignment of the optical receiver, and fault in the optical filter mirror motor [14].”

• cites [14] Duran, D.R., Robinson, E., Kornecki, A.J., and Zalewski, J. (2013, January 8–11). Safety Analysis of Autonomous Ground Vehicle Optical Systems: Bayesian Belief Networks Approach. Proceedings of the 2013 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems, Kraków, Poland.Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Soft faults are more difficult to detect and eliminate than hard faults, because sensor data take time to leave a confidence limit.

“Soft faults are more difficult to detect and eliminate, because sensor data take time to leave a confidence limit.”

May combine two claims.

Localization systems consist of external sensors such as camera systems (vision), LiDAR, RADAR, ultrasonic sensor, and global navigation satellite systems, which are significantly affected by weather conditions and geographic variances.

“Localization systems consist of external sensors such as camera systems (vision), LiDAR, RADAR, ultrasonic sensor, and global navigation satellite systems, which are significantly affected by weather conditions and geographic variances [44].”

• cites [44] Gruyer, 2018, Autonomous Vehicle Perception: The Technology of Today and Tomorrow, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Quddus et al. developed a positioning system that relies on digital road map and machine vision to determine surroundings to ensure vehicle safety.

“A positioning system developed by Quddus et al. relies on digital road map and machine vision to determine the surroundings to ensure vehicle safety [119]”

• cites [119] Quddus, 2007, Current Map-Matching Algorithms for Transport Applications: State-of-the Art and Future Research Directions, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Autonomous vehicles operate in unpredictable conditions, which leads to additional challenges.

“However, autonomous vehicles operate in unpredictable conditions, which leads to additional challenges [120].”

• cites [120] Ercek, R., De Doncker, P., and Grenez, F. (2005, January 13–16). Study of Pseudo-Range Error Due to Non-Line-of-Sight-Multipath in Urban Canyons. Proceedings of the 18th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2005), Long Beach, CA, USA.Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ultrasonic sensors have interference due to noise and blind zones in close proximity, which can lead to inaccurate readings.

“On the other hand, ultrasonic sensors have interference due to noise and blind zones in close proximity, which can lead to inaccurate readings [27].”

• cites [27] Lim, B.S., Keoh, S.L., and Thing, V.L.L. (2018, January 5–8). Autonomous Vehicle Ultrasonic Sensor Vulnerability and Impact Assessment. Proceedings of the IEEE World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), Singapore. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ultrasonic sensors are economical and have a straightforward installation method; they are extensively used in intelligent parking systems to locate available parking spaces.

“Ultrasonic sensors are economical and have a straightforward installation method; they are extensively used in intelligent parking systems to locate available parking spaces [96][97][98].”

• cites [96][97][98]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Three sensors per parking place are not feasible, and more cost-effectiveness research studies should be carried out.

“In this method, smart parking using three sensors was achieved; nevertheless, three sensors per parking place are not feasible, and more cost-effectiveness research studies should be carried out.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An intelligent system must be able to keep track of the health condition of both the intervehicle communication channel and the RADAR sensor.

“Therefore, an intelligent system must be able to keep track of the health condition of both the intervehicle communication channel and the RADAR sensor [88].”

• cites [88] Jeon, 2021, Simultaneous Cyber-Attack Detection and Radar Sensor Health Monitoring in Connected ACC Vehicles, IEEE Sens. J. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Materials with high sonic wave absorption coefficients and damping capabilities, such as acoustic foam, might also affect ultrasonic sensor readings.

“Materials with high sonic wave absorption coefficients and damping capabilities, such as acoustic foam, might also affect ultrasonic sensor readings [93].”

• cites [93] Cheek, E., Khuttan, D., Changalvala, R., and Malik, H. (2020, January 14–16). Physical Fingerprinting of Ultrasonic Sensors and Applications to Sensor Security. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 6th International Conference on Dependability in Sensor, Cloud and Big Data Systems and Application, DependSys, Nadi, Fiji. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

GPS algorithms are preferably applied on prototypes due to the involved damage in testing developed GPS algorithms.

“Due to the involved damage in testing the developed GPS algorithms, researchers prefer applying their proposed methodologies on prototypes; for example, Wan Rahiman et al. tested their proposed algorithm on a prototype vehicle that reaches its destination in three steps, using input from GPS [116].”

• cites [116] Rahiman, W., and Zainal, Z. (2013, January 19–21). An Overview of Development GPS Navigation for Autonomous Car. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 8th Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA), Melbourne, Australia. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mori et al. presented a Kalman filter-based FDI for various sensors, including camera sensors.

“Mori et al. [21] presented a Kalman filter-based FDI for various sensors, including camera sensors.”

• cites [21] Mori, D., Sugiura, H., and Hattori, Y. (2019, January 27–30). Adaptive Sensor Fault Detection and Isolation Using Unscented Kalman Filter for Vehicle Positioning. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC), Auckland, New Zealand. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kalman filter is one of the leading-edge techniques that can be used for FDI using multiple sensor data.

“Kalman filter is one of the leading-edge techniques that can be used for FDI using multiple sensor data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fault detection and PHM of ultrasonic-based devices are very important to reduce severe roadside impacts.

“Although ultrasonic sensors have significantly contributed to the AV sector, fault detection and PHM of ultrasonic-based devices are very important to reduce severe roadside impacts.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Ultrasonic sensors are highly sensitive to temperature and environment.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Each GNSS requires input signals from at least four of the 12 available GNSS satellites to provide an accurate 3D position (x, y, z) information, along with the time-of-flight between transmitter satellites and receiver.

“Each requires input signals from at least four of the 12 available GNSS satellites to provide an accurate 3D position (x, y, z) information, along with the time-of-flight between transmitter satellites and receiver [112,113].”

• cites [112] Capuano, 2022, On-Board Cooperative Spacecraft Relative Navigation Fusing GNSS with Vision, Prog. Aerosp. Sci. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [113] Gyagenda, 2022, A Review of GNSS-Independent UAV Navigation Techniques, Robot. Auton. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All kinds of autonomous vehicles require a positioning system to locate their position.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is the most widespread technology used for positioning.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Vehicular RADAR applications appear to be standardizing on 24 and 77 GHz, with a few very-short-range sensors operating at 5.8 or 10.5 GHz.

“Nevertheless, vehicular applications appear to be standardizing on 24 and 77 GHz, with a few very-short-range sensors operating at 5.8 or 10.5 GHz [77].”

• cites [77] Fallis, 2013, Autonomous Ground Vehicle, J. Chem. Inf. ModelingNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These factors affect the camera performance via blocking, blurring, range reduction, or misalignment of view.

“Hence, these factors affect the camera performance via blocking, blurring, range reduction, or misalignment of view.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The adverse effects on PHM can be more serious if the sensor system is used to measure a vital attribute or is installed in a restricted access position.

“The adverse effects on PHM can be more serious if the sensor system is used to measure a vital attribute or is installed in a restricted access position.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

RADAR sensors are often used in adaptive cruise control (ACC), in traffic jam assistance systems, and to assess distance and angle information about traffic objects.

“They are often used in adaptive cruise control (ACC), in traffic jam assistance systems, and to assess distance and angle information about traffic objects [78,79].”

• cites [78] Kesting, 2008, Adaptive Cruise Control Design for Active Congestion Avoidance, Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [79] Werneke, 2014, Perfect Timing: Urgency, Not Driving Situations, Influence the Best Timing to Activate Warnings, Hum. Factors sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kojima et al. used a laser system and GPS to track the positioning of a vehicle and determine its surrounding objects.

“Kojima et al. used a laser system and GPS to track the positioning of a vehicle and determine its surrounding objects [117].”

• cites [117] Kojima, 2008, Precise Ego-Localization by Integration of GPS and Sensor-Based Odometry, J. Intell. Connect. Veh.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PHM for the LiDAR of the AVs is an underdeveloped field.

“The PHM for the LiDAR of the AVs is an underdeveloped field; however, various researchers have recently been trying to develop various algorithms for the LiDAR PHM to avoid road accidents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Automotive LiDAR sensors are supposed to perform blind-spot monitoring, pedestrian identification, obstacle detection, and landscape mapping to ensure reliability and safety during driving operations.

“Automotive LiDAR sensors are supposed to perform blind-spot monitoring, pedestrian identification, obstacle detection [35], and landscape mapping [59] to ensure reliability and safety during driving operations.”

• cites [35] Wang, 2017, Pedestrian Recognition and Tracking Using 3D LiDAR for Autonomous Vehicle, Robot. Auton. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [59] Hata, A., and Wolf, D. (2014, January 8–11). Road Marking Detection Using LIDAR Reflective Intensity Data and Its Application to Vehicle Localization. Proceedings of the 17th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Qingdao, China. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many researchers have tried adding other positioning systems to GPS to improve the AV's overall positioning accuracy.

“Hence, during the past few decades, many researchers have tried adding other positioning systems and GPS to improve the AV's overall positioning accuracy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ultrasonic sensors are mostly placed in vehicle bumpers, and operate at frequencies in the range 25-50 kHz.

“These sensors are mostly placed in vehicle bumpers, and operate at frequencies in the range 25-50 kHz [94].”

• cites [94] Malekloo, 2019, Smart Parking in IoT-Enabled Cities: A Survey, Sustain. Cities Soc. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Refraction of the GPS signal in the atmospheric layer is a cause of error in GPS signal.

“In addition to the aforementioned errors, the refraction of the GPS signal in the atmospheric layer was mentioned to be a cause of error in GPS signal [114].”

• cites [114] Zermani, S., Dezan, C., Hireche, C., Euler, R., and Diguet, J.-P. (2016, January 12–16). Embedded and Probabilistic Health Management for the GPS of Autonomous Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2016 5th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing (MECO), Bar, Montenegro. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All kinds of autonomous vehicles require a positioning system to locate their position.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is the most widespread technology used for positioning.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The reliability of dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) performance is inadequate to guarantee vehicle stability execution in such circumstances.

“However, the reliability of dedicated shortrange communication (DSRC) performance is inadequate to guarantee vehicle stability execution in such circumstances.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Most of the available literature could not cover the overall sensor assessment of the AVs, which is a complicated task in terms of data handling.

“Most of the available literature could not cover the overall sensor assessment of the AVs, which is a complicated task in terms of data handling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Customer acceptance, social and economic impacts, telecommunication, ethical considerations, planning, guidelines, and policy are just a few of the research questions that must be addressed.

“Customer acceptance, social and economic impacts, telecommunication, ethical considerations, planning, guidelines, and policy are just a few of the research questions that must be addressed [132].”

• cites [132] Maddox, J., Sweatman, P., and Sayer, J. (2015, January 8–11). Intelligent Vehicles+ Infrastructure to Address Transportation Problems—A Strategic Approach. Proceedings of the 24th international technical conference on the enhanced safety of vehicles (ESV), Gothenburg, Sweden.Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

As a result, the overall information is accurate over an extensive range.

“As a result, the overall information is accurate over an extensive range.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Various researchers are testing AV technology for real-world implementation.

“Hence, various researchers are testing AV technology for real-world implementation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Safety-related intervehicle communication (IVC) is one of the crucial hazards in AV technology.

“Safety-related intervehicle communication (IVC) is one of the crucial hazards in AV technology.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The gradual substitution of conventional vehicles with AVs will take place, with the main factor being society's adjustment to this type of innovation and corresponding features.

“Hence, it appears that the gradual substitution of conventional vehicles with AVs will take place, with the main factor being society's adjustment to this type of innovation and corresponding features.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Traditional software bugs are more difficult to fix than DNN-based software bugs.

“While Google, GM, BMW, and Tesla will each experiment and test various AVs, traditional software bugs are more difficult to fix than DNN-based software bugs [56].”

• cites [56] Sculley, D., Holt, G., Golovin, D., Davydov, E., Phillips, T., Ebner, D., Chaudhary, V., and Young, M. (2022, August 10). Machine Learning: The High Interest Credit Card of Technical Debt. Available online: https://blog.acolyer.org/2016/02/29/machine-learning-the-high-interest-credit-card-of-technical-debt/.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Researchers and specialists anticipate that AVs will be widely adopted in the coming 20 to 25 years.

“Researchers and specialists anticipate that AVs will be widely adopted in the coming 20 to 25 years.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Outside environmental conditions such as external interference and noise can affect sensor data, which ultimately affects the PHM process.

“In view of that, the outside environmental conditions such as external interference and noise can affect the sensor data, which ultimately affects the PHM process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some major challenges described in [121] include static infrastructure, such as buildings and thick foliage, and dynamic obstacles, such as traffic and pedestrians.

“Some of the major challenges described in [121] include static infrastructure, such as buildings and thick foliage, and dynamic obstacles, such as traffic and pedestrians.”

• cites [121] Joerger, M., and Spenko, M. (2017). Towards Navigation Safety for Autonomous Cars. Inside GNSS, 40–49. Available online: https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10070277.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The data collection system makes the working environment bulkier in actual scenarios.

“The data collection system makes the working environment bulkier in actual scenarios.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The modern world requirement of real-time positions, particularly with high accuracy, led to the emergence of real-time kinematic GPS (RTK GPS) strategy because of its easy implementation and productivity.

“The modern world requirement of real-time positions, particularly with high accuracy, led to the emergence of the real-time kinematic GPS (RTK GPS) strategy because of its easy implementation and productivity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

RTK GPS, like all GPS techniques, is susceptible to multipath errors.

“RTK GPS, like all GPS techniques, is susceptible to multipath errors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Various issues are concerns to adopt AV technology on a large scale such as legal obligations, ethical implications, confidentiality issues, data protection and hacking, and the massive cost of vehicles and related technologies.

“Various issues are concerns to adopt the AV technology on a large scale such as legal obligations, ethical implications, confidentiality issues, data protection and hacking, and the massive cost of vehicles and related technologies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One of the challenges is connecting several smart cars to facilities that require big data.

“One of the challenges is connecting several smart cars to the facilities that require big data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There are a series of policy implications and difficulties that policymakers have in optimizing and governing a diverse range of vehicles with varying operational limitations.

“There are a series of policy implications and difficulties that policymakers have in optimizing and governing a diverse range of vehicles with varying operational limitations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bader et al. proposed a fault-tolerant approach in multi-sensor data fusion, relying on the duplication-comparison method.

“Bader et al. proposed a faulttolerant approach in multi-sensor data fusion, relying on the duplication-comparison method.”

• cites [128] Bader, 2017, A Fault Tolerant Architecture for Data Fusion: A Real Application of Kalman Filters for Mobile Robot Localization, Robot. Auton. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

It is a quite challenging task to develop a PHM system for the AV that works under different operating conditions.

“Furthermore, it is a quite challenging task to develop a PHM system for the AV that works under different operating conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bi et al. introduced a cross-layer broadcast protocol for efficient and dependable message delivery in IVC systems.

“Bi et al. [7] introduced a cross-layer broadcast protocol for efficient and dependable message delivery in IVC systems.”

• cites [7] Bi, 2010, Efficient and Reliable Broadcast in Intervehicle Communication Networks: A Cross-Layer Approach, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is a complicated process to compensate for the lab-scale model in real environmental conditions because of the complex working conditions in real-time applications.

“It is a complicated process to compensate for the lab-scale model in real environmental conditions because of the complex working conditions in real-time applications.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Availability of memory constraints, such as running complex software necessitates a significant amount of memory.

“Secondly, the availability of memory constraints, such as running complex software necessitates a significant amount of memory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The majority of the work defines problems within a very narrow range, with numerous constraints.

“The majority of the work defines problems within a very narrow range, with numerous constraints.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The autonomous vehicle is an underdeveloped technology, and extensive research potential exists to develop the AVs.

“The autonomous vehicle is an underdeveloped technology, and extensive research potential exists to develop the AVs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bader et al.'s method was explained using a case study using real data and fault injection implemented with Kalman filter for the positioning of a mobile robot.

“The value of their method was explained using a case study using real data and fault injection implemented with Kalman filter for the positioning of a mobile robot.”

• cites [128] Bader, 2017, A Fault Tolerant Architecture for Data Fusion: A Real Application of Kalman Filters for Mobile Robot Localization, Robot. Auton. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is challenging to propose an FDI algorithm that simultaneously diagnoses the fault in individual sensors.

“However, it is challenging to propose an FDI algorithm that simultaneously diagnoses the fault in individual sensors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is complicated to deal with overall 'big data' for all sensors collectively.

“Similarly, it is complicated to deal with overall”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Controlling external light, which acts as noise during image processing, is one of the key issues for AVs.

“In addition, controlling external light, which acts as noise during image processing, is one of the key issues for AVs [59].”

• cites [59] Hata, A., and Wolf, D. (2014, January 8–11). Road Marking Detection Using LIDAR Reflective Intensity Data and Its Application to Vehicle Localization. Proceedings of the 17th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Qingdao, China. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Knowledge of the environment continues to be the most challenging obstacle to dependable, smooth, and safe driving.

“Knowledge of the environment continues to be the most challenging obstacle to dependable, smooth, and safe driving [131].”

• cites [131] Anderson, J.M., Nidhi, K., Stanley, K.D., Sorensen, P., Samaras, C., and Oluwatola, O.A. (2014). Autonomous Vehicle Technology: A Guide for Policymakers, Rand Corporation.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is a comparatively easy task to detect and eliminate hard faults.

“In addition, it is a comparatively easy task to detect and eliminate hard faults.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yu and Biswas proposed a unique DSRC-based medium access control (MAC) framework for IVC that comprised a self-configuring time division of numerous guidelines with short and deterministic time lag-linked capabilities.

“For instance, Yu and Biswas [5] proposed a unique DSRC-based medium access control (MAC) framework for IVC that comprised a self-configuring time division of numerous guidelines with short and deterministic time lag-linked capabilities.”

• cites [5] Yu, 2007, Self-Configuring TDMA Protocols for Enhancing Vehicle Safety with DSRC Based Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications, IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The fault tolerance of the considered vehicles was evaluated using experimental data and fault injection, and the objective of their work was presented in terms of fault detection and system recovery.

“Lastly, the fault tolerance of the considered vehicles was evaluated using experimental data and fault injection, and the objective of their work was presented in terms of fault detection and system recovery [128].”

• cites [128] Bader, 2017, A Fault Tolerant Architecture for Data Fusion: A Real Application of Kalman Filters for Mobile Robot Localization, Robot. Auton. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other constraints include access to the most suitable sensing regions due to limited sensing environments or uninhabitable or toxic surroundings.

“Other constraints include access to the most suitable sensing regions due to limited sensing environments or uninhabitable or toxic surroundings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kalman filter variants have widespread application among existing quantitative model-based methods due to their simplicity and ability to handle reasonable uncertainties and nonlinearities.

“The Kalman filter variants have widespread application among existing quantitative model-based methods due to their simplicity and ability to handle reasonable uncertainties and nonlinearities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Palazzi et al. proposed an innovative IVC framework that adjusts its features and functionality to deliver implementations efficiently by rapidly perpetuating their communications across a vehicular network.

“Palazzi et al. [8] proposed an innovative IVC framework that adjusts its features and functionality to deliver implementations efficiently by rapidly perpetuating their communications across a vehicular network.”

• cites [8] Palazzi, 2009, An Intervehicular Communication Architecture for Safety and Entertainment, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Satellite faults occur due to anomalies in different GNSS segments: receiver malfunction in the user segment, clock anomalies in the space segment, and satellite broadcast anomalies due to the control segment.

“Satellite faults [20] occur due to anomalies in different GNSS segments, i.e., receiver malfunction in the user segment, clock anomalies in the space segment, and satellite broadcast anomalies due to the control segment.”

• cites [20] Blanch, J., Walter, T., and Enge, P. (2016, January 25–28). A Simple Satellite Exclusion Algorithm for Advanced RAIM. Proceedings of the 2016 International Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, Monterey, CA, USA. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

AVs are composed of different kinds of sensors.

“AVs are composed of different kinds of sensors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Software concerns, such as system security and reliability, have emerged as significant issues that need to be acknowledged.

“Software concerns, such as system security and reliability, have also emerged as significant issues that need to be acknowledged.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If processing requires extensive computation and high speeds, this would consume substantially more energy.

“Firstly, if the processing requires extensive computation and high speeds, this would consume substantially more energy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A distributed power control method was suggested to control a load of periodic messages on the channel.

“Furthermore, the distributed power control method was suggested to control a load of periodic messages on the channel [6].”

• cites [6] Mittag, 2009, Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication: Fair Transmit Power Control for Safety-Critical Information, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The future of AV technology is brighter because of its peculiar features such as the pervasive utilization of AVs on highways resulting in fewer traffic accidents, efficiency in terms of fuel usage, and increased productivity.

“On the other hand, the future of AV technology is brighter because of its peculiar features such as the pervasive utilization of AVs on highways resulting in fewer traffic accidents, efficiency in terms of fuel usage, and increased productivity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Bader et al.'s case study, an actual vehicle was localized using data from accelerometer, gyrometer, and odometer, feeding them to a Kalman filter and taking data from another odometer and GPS, before providing them to another Kalman filter.

“In a case study, an actual vehicle was localized using the data from the accelerometer, gyrometer, and odometer, feeding them to a Kalman filter and taking data from another odometer and GPS, before providing them to another Kalman filter.”

• cites [128] Bader, 2017, A Fault Tolerant Architecture for Data Fusion: A Real Application of Kalman Filters for Mobile Robot Localization, Robot. Auton. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

During testing of positioning systems, most researchers prefer indoor or controlled environments.

“During the testing of positioning systems, most researchers prefer indoor or controlled environments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Understanding the overall shape of technology and its trajectory is incredibly challenging.

“However, understanding the overall shape of technology and its trajectory is incredibly challenging.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tabatabaei et al. improved simpler network topologies for simulation models by enhancing ray-tracing-derived wireless propagation models.

“Tabatabaei et al. [9] improved simpler network topologies for simulation models by enhancing ray-tracing-derived wireless propagation models.”

• cites [9] Tabatabaei, 2011, Improving Propagation Modeling in Urban Environments for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Complementary data from various sensors can be used to compensate for individual sensor inaccuracies and operating ranges.

“Complementary data from various sensors can be used to compensate for individual sensor inaccuracies and operating ranges.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PHM for AV technology is still progressing, with a wide range of research objectives.

“As mentioned above, the PHM for AV technology is still progressing, with a wide range of research objectives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A multipath error appears if GPS signals are reflected from the ground or other objects together around the receiver, likely to result in a systematic error in the simulation of the range between both the satellite and the receiver.

“A multipath error appears if GPS signals are reflected from the ground or other objects together around the receiver, likely to result in a systematic error in the simulation of the range between both the satellite and the receiver.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

For an effective PHM model, onboard sensor suites are key for real-time PHM analysis.

“In addition, for an effective PHM model, the onboard sensor suites are key for realtime PHM analysis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The ultrasonic sensors used to determine an object in the domain of the sensors are susceptible to acoustic/electronic noise, performance degradation under bright ambient light, vehicle corner error, and cross echoes, among others.

“The ultrasonic sensors used to determine an object in the domain of the sensors are susceptible to acoustic/electronic noise, performance degradation under bright ambient light, vehicle corner error, and cross echoes, among others.”

May combine two claims.

A Tesla autonomous car crash killed the driver due to image contrast, camera failure, and confusion of a white truck with clear sky.

“| Tesla autonomous car [135] | Image contrast/the driver was killed | Failure of camera and confusion of white truck with clear sky. |”

• cites [135] McFarland, M. (2022, August 10). Who’s Responsible When an Autonomous Car Crashes. Available online: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/who-s-responsible-when-a-self-driving-car-crashes/.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The techniques employed for the fault detection and isolation of positioning sensors and systems are the Kalman filter, Markov blanket (MB) algorithm, and sensor redundancy fault detection model.

“The techniques employed for the fault detection and isolation of positioning sensors and systems are the Kalman filter, Markov blanket (MB) algorithm, and sensor redundancy fault detection model.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

RADAR is more economical than LiDAR and cameras, and it works on the principle of the Doppler effect.

“RADAR is more economical than LiDAR and cameras, and it works on the principle of the Doppler effect.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some representative PHM efforts for LiDAR are correlation with sensor framework, output of the monitoring sensor, correlation to passive ground truth, correlation to active ground truth, correlation to another similar sensor, and correlation to a different sensor.

“Some representative PHM efforts for LiDAR are correlation with sensor framework, output of the monitoring sensor, correlation to passive ground truth, correlation to active ground truth, correlation to another similar sensor, and correlation to a different sensor.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Common approaches for detecting faults and corrective measures in ultrasonic sensors are artificial neural networks, parallel parking assist systems, combined ultrasonic sensors and three-dimensional vision sensors, and grid maps.

“Common approaches for detecting faults and corrective measures in ultrasonic sensors are artificial neural networks, parallel parking assist systems, combined ultrasonic sensors and three-dimensional vision sensors, and grid maps.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Some preventive and corrective measures for RADAR are calibration in relevant service stations, sliding mode observer, sensor fault detection, cyberattack detection observer, and the LSTM-based deep learning approach.

“Some preventive and corrective measures for RADAR are calibration in relevant service stations, sliding mode observer, sensor fault detection, cyberattack detection observer, and the LSTM-based deep learning approach.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The positioning sensors and systems employed to locate the position of AVs are prone to jumps in GPS observation, satellite and received signal faults, and sensor data with/without curbs on the roadsides.

“The positioning sensors and systems employed to locate the position of AVs are prone to jumps in GPS observation, satellite and received signal faults, and sensor data with/without curbs on the roadsides.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

It is imperative for traffic safety and higher driving efficiency to carry out timely diagnosis and prognosis of the main components of ADAS in the framework of prognostic health management (PHM).

“It is imperative for traffic safety and higher driving efficiency to carry out timely diagnosis (detection, quantification, and isolation of faults) and prognosis (future evaluation of defects) of the main components of ADAS in the framework of prognostic health management (PHM).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The primary failure modes of RADAR are fault in the range rate signal and sensor fault.

“The primary failure modes of RADAR are fault in the range rate signal and sensor fault.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The AVs and the PHM of its main components are not yet fully developed, and a great deal of research is needed to fully develop reliable autonomous driving.

“The AVs and the PHM of its main components are not yet fully developed, and a great deal of research is needed to fully develop reliable autonomous driving.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Recent years have seen a rise in self-driving autonomous vehicles (AVs), where the advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) plays a critical role.

“Recent years have seen a rise in self-driving autonomous vehicles (AVs), where the advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) plays a critical role.”