Corrective responses in human food intake identified from an analysis of 7-d food-intake records
Open accessAbstract
Background We tested the hypothesis that ad libitum food intake shows corrective responses over periods of 1-5 d.Design This was a prospective study of food intake in women.Methods Two methods, a weighed food intake and a measured food intake, were used to determine daily nutrient intake during 2 wk in 20 women. Energy expenditure with the use of doubly labeled water was done contemporaneously with the weighed food-intake record. The daily deviations in macronutrient and energy intake from the average 7-d values were compared with the deviations observed 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 d later to estimate the corrective responses.Results Both methods of recording food intake gave similar patterns of macronutrient and total energy intakes and for deviations from average intakes. The intraindividual CVs for energy intake ranged from +/-12% to +/-47% with an average of +/-25%. Reported energy intake was 85.5-95.0% of total energy expenditure determined by doubly labeled water. Significant corrective responses were observed in food intakes with a 3- to 4-d lag that disappeared when data were randomized within each subject.Conclusions Human beings show corrective responses to deviations from average energy and macronutrient intakes with a lag time of 3-4 d, but not 1-2 d. This suggests that short-term studies may fail to recognize important signals of food-intake regulation that operate over several days. These corrective responses probably play a crucial role in bringing about weight stability.
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Previous studies found day-to-day variability in ad libitum energy intake with a standard deviation of about 500-600 kcal/d.
“This sample size calculation was informed by previous studies measuring day to day variability of ad libitum energy intake having a standard deviation of about 500–600 kcal/d (Bray et al., 2008; Edholm et al., 1970; Tarasuk and Beaton, 1992).”
From Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake (2019) · cites this paper as Bray et al., 2008
The Results section (page unavailable) reports substantial day-to-day variation in energy intake, and the Discussion gives an average within-person coefficient of variation of 25%. The paper does not report a standard deviation of 500–600 kcal/d; its mention of 600 kcal describes occasional deviations from a person's average, not the standard deviation. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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“Previously it has been shown that in humans, compensatory changes in food intake typically occur over 2–6 days [7, 8], which questions the validity of preload studies.”
BackgroundJiménez, M. D. C. F.-F. (2024) · Journal of the American Nutrition Association · doi:10.1080/27697061.2024.2406887 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Levitsky, D. A., Limb, J. E. R., Wilkinson, L., Sewall, A., Zhong, Y., Olabi, A. A., & Hunter, J. B. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.04.038 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
McCartney, D., Langston, K., Desbrow, B., Khalesi, S., & Irwin, C. G. (2019) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637486.2018.1547690 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“This is important because corrective responses to deviations from average EI may take several days to occur (Bray et al. 2008) and evidence suggests that the short-term effects of ED on EI do not translate into the longer term (Stubbs and Whybrow 2004).”
Background“The Big Three” properties of food that drive intake
Rolls, B. J., Cunningham, P. M., & Zuraikat, F. M. (2025) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114994 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Economic growth and the demand for dietary quality: Evidence from Russia during transition
Burggraf, C., Teuber, R., Brosig, S., & Glauben, T. (2015) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2015.08.002 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Especially the inefficiency with regard to slowly moving variables such as health leads to highly sample-dependent, unreliable and imprecise point estimates with little explanatory power since the influence of the error on the estimated coefficients becomes larger as the inefficiency of the estimator increases (Plumpe…”
Fong, M., Li, A., Hill, A. J., Cunich, M. M., Skilton, M. R., Madigan, C. D., & Caterson, I. D. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11030683 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In addition, previous work has shown that corrective dietary responses may occur three to four days following deviations from average energy intake [24].”
BackgroundEnergy intake highs and lows: how much does consistency matter in weight control?
Rosenbaum, D. L., Schumacher, L. M., Schaumberg, K., Piers, A. D., Gaspar, M. E., Lowe, M. R., Forman, E. M., & Butryn, M. L. (2016) · Clinical Obesity · doi:10.1111/cob.12142 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rocha, J., Paxman, J. R., Dalton, C., Hopkins, M., & Broom, D. R. (2018) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.05.143 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“350 While a 2-5 day ‘lag’ in energy intake compensation has been noted following 351 dietary perturbations to energy balance (16, 30, 31), whether such corrective 352 responses in energy intake exist after exercise-induced perturbations has received less 353”
Reductions in Dietary Energy Density to Moderate Children’s Energy Intake
Rolls, B. J., & Leahy, K. E. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374387-9.00044-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Bray, G. A. (2011) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.011114 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“the number of calories that were consumed on that day (8), suggesting that a lower fat intake could translate into longer-term reduction of energy intake.”
Self-citationHall, K. D., Guo, J., Courville, A. B., Boring, J., Brychta, R. J., Chen, K. Y., Darcey, V. L., Forde, C. G., Gharib, A. M., Gallagher, I., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31232/osf.io/rdjfb · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Correia, B. S. B., Sandby, K., Krarup, T., Magkos, F., Geiker, N. R. W., & Bertram, H. C. (2024) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.202300363 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wan, H., Stickford, J. L., Dawkins, E. J., Lindeman, A. K., & Stager, J. M. (2018) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2018-0152 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that an EI pattern different from normal following dietary manipulation may not occur in an acute setting without completion of additional physical activity (Bray et al. 2008).”
BackgroundDonoso, I. A. P., Blannin, A. K., & Wallis, G. A. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107716 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“It is conceivable that changes in appetite, energy intake or expenditure may occur in the day or up to three days after exercise, as previously suggested by others (Bray, Flatt, Volaufova, DeLany, & Champagne, 2008; Champagne et al., 2013; Podest ´ a D, Blannin, & Wallis, 2023).”
ResultMitchell, S. E., Togo, J., Green, C. L., Derous, D., Hambly, C., & Speakman, J. R. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glad152 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In humans, the compensatory regulation seems to happen after 3–4 days rather than after 1–2 days (27,28).”
BackgroundResultThe Influence of Portion Size on Eating and Drinking
Zuraikat, F. M., Smethers, A. D., & Rolls, B. J. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14504-0_129 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The control of eating: is there any function for satiation and satiety?
Levitsky, D. A. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1533/9780857098719.5.373 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bray, G. A. (2023) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.23921 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Although food intake is highly variable [13, 14], there is short-term meal-to-meal regulation [15], intermediate regulation [16], and long-term [8] regulation.”
BackgroundSelf-citationHopkins, M., Jeukendrup, A., King, N. A., & Blundell, J. E. (2011) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/11588780-000000000-00000 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Bray et al.([85]) reported that corrective responses in EI Substrate Metabolism, Exercise and Appetite 513”
BackgroundČermáková, E., Forejt, M., & Cermak, M. (2024) · International Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijms.92107 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“However, according to a study by Bray et al. (2008), the biological mechanisms that regulate the energy and macronutrient intake are delayed by 3 -4 days, so these biological signals may not be evident in short - term studies [19].”
BackgroundDonoso, I. A. P., Blannin, A. K., & Wallis, G. A. (2023) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114320 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“At present, no studies have expanded on the impact of overnightfasted exercise and carbohydrate metabolism on short-term energy intake and physical activity, even though energy balance changes can have a lag time of days [29,30].”
BackgroundThe Influence of Portion Size on Eating and Drinking
Zuraikat, F. M., Smethers, A. D., & Rolls, B. J. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75388-1_129-2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Influence of Portion Size on Eating and Drinking
Zuraikat, F. M., Smethers, A. D., & Rolls, B. J. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75388-1_129-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Arčon, M., Malone, J., Barton, K., & Rocha, J. (2023) · Human Nutrition & Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.hnm.2023.200185 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Smith, M., Aghayan, M., Little, J. P., Prior, J. C., Cohen, T. R., Soon, Z., Bomide, H., & Purcell, S. A. (2025) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2025.108314 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Xu, L., Dong, X., Gao, Z., Sun, T., Zhou, C., Wen, X., & Hou, X. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-25189-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…(less than 9th grade, 9-11th grade, high school graduate, some college or AA degree, college graduate or above), and TEI (low: males < 2000 kcal/day, females < 1600 kcal/day; adequate: males 2000– 3000 kcal/day, females 1600–2400 kcal/day; high: males >3000 kcal/day, females >2400 kcal/day) [39].”
Monterrey, P. A., Cortés, L. Y., & Garzón, M. J. A. (2016) · Revista chilena de nutrición · doi:10.4067/s0717-75182016000400004 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Control of Weight: How Do We Get Fat?
Bray, G. A. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444324808.ch8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationMete, R., Georgousopoulou, E. N., Mellor, D. D., Khoo, J. J. C., Cheong, M., Leeds, A., Allan, K., Avery, A., Hart, K., Muir, A., et al. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118857991.ch4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Arčon, M., Malone, J., Barton, K., & Rocha, J. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4131231 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Effects of Voluntary Exercise on a Rodent Model of Binge Eating
Albertz, J. (2015)
(2011) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b10790-15
Arčon, M., & Cameron, A. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4638053/v1
Smith, M., Aghayan, M., Little, J. P., Prior, J. C., Cohen, T. R., Soon, Z., Bomide, H., & Purcell, S. A. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.02.28.25323098
“…previous day’s dietary intake and providing the same breakfast meal to all participants before postprandial appetite and energy intake assessments can introduce errors, as prior dietary intake (30) and individual differences in energy requirements are key factors influencing subsequent intake (42).”
- Authors
- Bray, G. A., Flatt, J.-P., Volaufova, J., DeLany, J. P., & Champagne, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bray, George A
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-12
- Volume
- 88
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1504-1510
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2747299
- OpenAlex
- W2120902008
- Cited by
- 72
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 1.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Agriculture
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (P30DK072476)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- food intake regulation, corrective responses, energy intake, macronutrient intake, energy expenditure, doubly labeled water, within-person variability, weight stability, women
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Alcohol Drinking, Body Water, Energy Intake, Deuterium, Dietary Carbohydrates, Dietary Fats, Dietary Proteins, Eating, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Oxygen Isotopes, Predictive Value of Tests, Prospective Studies, Satiety Response, Time Factors, Diet Records
About these checks
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