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Oral microbiome: Unveiling the fundamentals
Open accessAbstract
The oral cavity has the second largest and diverse microbiota after the gut harboring over 700 species of bacteria. It nurtures numerous microorganisms which include bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa. The mouth with its various niches is an exceptionally complex habitat where microbes colonize the hard surfaces of the teeth and the soft tissues of the oral mucosa. In addition to being the initiation point of digestion, the oral microbiome is crucial in maintaining oral as well as systemic health. Because of the ease of sample collection, it has become the most well-studied microbiome till date. Previously, studying the microbiome was limited to the conventional culture-dependent techniques, but the abundant microflora present in the oral cavity could not be cultured. Hence, studying the microbiome was difficult. The emergence of new genomic technologies including next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics has revealed the complexities of the oral microbiome. It has provided a powerful means of studying the microbiome. Understanding the oral microbiome in health and disease will give further directions to explore the functional and metabolic alterations associated with the diseased states and to identify molecular signatures for drug development and targeted therapies which will ultimately help in rendering personalized and precision medicine. This review article is an attempt to explain the different aspects of the oral microbiome in health.
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“After the colon, the oral microbiome represents the second most diverse microbiota in the human host, with over 700 bacterial species presently identified.35”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [35]
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“due to improved understanding of the crucial role played by the oral microbiome in initiating food digestion and maintaining oral and systemic health.”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [35]
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“As the second largest microbial ecosystem, the microbiome of the oral cavity is composed of a variety of different microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, viruses, archaea, and protozoa [35].”
BackgroundBiofilm architecture and dynamics of the oral ecosystem
Ray, R. R. (2024) · Biotechnologia · doi:10.5114/bta.2024.145259 · Cited by 15
“Oral microbiomes contain a large number of plank-tonic bacteria that tend to adhere to surfaces (Deo et al., 2019), leading to the formation of a matrix-enclosed microbial community known as biofilm.”
Xiao, Y., Gong, B., Li, J., & Xu, N. (2025) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1640904 · Cited by 19
“Studies use various sample types (e.g., saliva, subgingival plaque, tongue coating), which harbor distinct microbial communities and are not directly comparable (27).”
Study of microbiocenosis of canine dental biofilms
Kačírová, J., Maďari, A., Mucha, R., Fecskeová, L. K., Mujakić, I., Koblížek, M., Nemcová, R., & Maďar, M. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99342-5 · Cited by 15
Irwin, S. V., Deardorff, L. M., Deng, Y., Fisher, P., Gould, M., June, J., Kent, R. S., Qin, Y., & Yadao, F. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265249 · Cited by 15
Cafiero, C., Grippaudo, C., Dell’Aquila, M., Cimmino, P., D’Addona, A., Angelis, P. D., Ottaiano, M. P., Costagliola, D., Benincasa, G., Micera, A., et al. (2022) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom12060833 · Cited by 20
“of our knowledge to date, periodontitis is mediated by a complex interaction between dysbiosis of the oral microbiota and an aberrant immune response of periodontal tissues [4].”
BackgroundRetnakumar, R. J., Nath, A. N., Nair, G. B., & Chattopadhyay, S. (2022) · Progress in molecular biology and translational science · doi:10.1016/bs.pmbts.2022.07.001 · Cited by 15
Science-Informed Health Policies for Oral and Systemic Health
Slavkin, H. C., DuBois, P., Kleinman, D. V., & Fuccillo, R. (2023) · Journal of Healthcare Leadership · doi:10.2147/jhl.s363657 · Cited by 18
“a rich resource for understanding the role of mouth in oral and general health and disease, and is critical for informing the development of diagnostics, therapeutics and for the surveillance of disease and health states.(67,68,82) After the gut, the”
BackgroundExploring the oral microbiome: an updated multidisciplinary oral healthcare perspective
Chowdhry, A., Kapoor, P., Bhargava, D., & Bagga, D. K. (2023) · Discoveries · doi:10.15190/d.2023.4 · Cited by 15
Regulation of Pain Perception by Microbiota in Parkinson Disease
Manjarres, Z., Calvo, M., & Pacheco, R. (2023) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pharmrev.122.000674 · Cited by 15
Exploring the In Vitro Antibacterial Potential of Specific Probiotic Strains against Oral Pathogens
Squarzanti, D. F., Dell’Atti, F., Scalia, A. C., Najmi, Z., Cochis, A., & Malfa, P. (2024) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms12030441 · Cited by 15
“The oral cavity hosts its characteristic microbiota, which comprises more than 700 different kinds of microorganisms, spread out in specific niches including the tongue, cheeks, hard and soft palates, saliva, teeth, throat, pharynx, and gingival sulcus [1–3].”
BackgroundSafety, Feasibility, and Advantages of Oral Microbiota Transplantation: The First Clinical Case
Goloshchapov, O. V., Чухловин, А. Б., Bug, D. S., Polev, D. E., Kosarev, O. V., Klementeva, R. V., Izmailova, E. A., Kazantsev, I. V., Halipskaya, M., Goloshchapova, М. О., et al. (2024) · Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology · doi:10.1097/mph.0000000000002896 · Cited by 16
Effects of Mint Oils on the Human Oral Microbiome: A Pilot Study
Abdelrahman, S. M., Samak, M. E., El-Baz, L. M. F., Hanora, A., Satyal, P., & Dosoky, N. S. (2024) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms12081538 · Cited by 16
“These microorganisms are essential to maintaining good oral health by helping with nutrient digestion and absorption, preventing harmful microorganisms from taking hold, and boosting the immune system [4].”
BackgroundAlbu, Ş.-D., Suciu, I., Albu, C.-C., Dragomirescu, A.-O., & Ionescu, E. (2024) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms12081553 · Cited by 20
““Oral microbiome”, “oral microflora”, or “oral microbiota” are the terms most frequently used to describe the microbial community residing in the human oral cavity [8,9].”
BackgroundFermented food consumption modulates the oral microbiota
Ibarlucea-Jerez, M., Monnoye, M., Chambon, C., Gérard, P., Licandro, H., & Neyraud, E. (2024) · npj Science of Food · doi:10.1038/s41538-024-00298-3 · Cited by 15
“Within the oral cavity resides a complex ecosystem that is not a favourable location for the persistence of exogenous microorganisms, due to the fact that it contains 10 10 bacteria and more than 700 different species that are divided into different ecologicalniches 7 .”
Multi-Omics Approaches: The Key to Improving Respiratory Health in People With Cystic Fibrosis?
Lee, A. J., Einarsson, G. G., Gilpin, D. F., & Tunney, M. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.569821 · Cited by 14
Genomic characterization of four Escherichia coli strains isolated from oral lichen planus biopsies
Min, H., Baek, K. J., Lee, A., Seok, Y., & Choi, Y. (2021) · Journal of Oral Microbiology · doi:10.1080/20002297.2021.1905958 · Cited by 15
“as the most stable human-associated microbiota, many studies have reported that alterations in the oral microbiome may cause physiological changes, suggesting potential roles of the microbiome in oral disease [6,7].”
BackgroundDjordjević, I. O., Obradović, H., Кукољ, Т., Petrović, A., Mojsilović, S. B., Bugarski, D. S., & Jauković, A. (2021) · World Journal of Stem Cells · doi:10.4252/wjsc.v13.i12.1863 · Cited by 15
Ivanova, N. A., Sotirova, Y., Gavrailov, G., Nikolova, K. T., & Andonova, V. (2022) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics14030530 · Cited by 15
“The nasal route stands out as one of the most prospective sites for peptide and protein delivery [195], and direct brain drug delivery (via the olfactory bulb) [196,197]; the buccal route reveals opportunities for sustained drug delivery, and the sublingual route allows fast access to the systemic circulation [198,199…”
BackgroundKhan, I., Ahmad, T., Manzoor, N., Rizvi, M. M. A., Raza, U., & Premchandani, S. (2020) · National Journal of Maxillofacial Surgery · doi:10.4103/njms.njms_161_20 · Cited by 15
“The oral cavity is home to more than 700 different species of microorganisms making it the second most diversely inhabited cavity in the human body, gut being the first.[1] Humans inheritably do not have any microorganisms in their oral cavity but the process of acquisition of microbes starts right at the time of birt…”
BackgroundThe forgotten link: how the oral microbiome shapes childhood growth and development
Tjandrawinata, R. R., Amalia, N., Tandi, Y. Y. P., Athallah, A. F., Wibowo, C. A., Aditya, M. R., Muhammad, A., Azizah, M. R., Humardani, F. M., Nojaid, A., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Oral Health · doi:10.3389/froh.2025.1547099 · Cited by 15
“However, imbalances in this equilibrium can allow pathogenic organisms to emerge and cause disease (9).”
Alavi, S. E., Shahmabadi, H. E., Sharma, L. A., & Sharma, A. (2025) · 3 Biotech · doi:10.1007/s13205-025-04443-x · Cited by 14
“This biofilm disrupts the natural homeostasis of the oral microbiome, which comprises approximately 700 bacterial species (Deo and Deshmukh 2019).”
Association between Oral Microbiome and Esophageal Diseases: A State-of-the-Art Review
Bernard, R., Fazili, I., Rajagopala, S. V., Das, S. R., & Hiremath, G. S. (2021) · Digestive Diseases · doi:10.1159/000517736 · Cited by 15
“The oral cavity has over 775 bacterial species [16] and its composition is suspected to be affected by many variables including host genetics [17], geography [18], age [19], oral health [20], lifestyle habits [21], social factors [22], and medications [23].”
BackgroundInfluentialLommi, S., Manzoor, M., Engberg, E., Agrawal, N., Lakka, T. A., Leinonen, J., Kolho, K., & Viljakainen, H. T. (2022) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.864687 · Cited by 14
Sun, H., Zhou, Q., Qiao, P., Zhu, D., Xin, B., Wu, B., & Tang, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.1056637 · Cited by 15
“The human oral cavity is a complex micro-ecosystem and is the second largest reservoir of bacteria in the body, containing over 700 species of bacteria (Deo and Deshmukh, 2019).”
BackgroundLower respiratory tract microbiome composition and community interactions in smokers
Campos, M., Cickovski, T., Fernandez, M., Jaric, M., Wanner, A., Holt, G. E., Donna, E., Mendes, E. S., Silva‐Herzog, E., Schneper, L. M., et al. (2023) · Access Microbiology · doi:10.1099/acmi.0.000497.v3 · Cited by 15
“Eubacterium [45] has previously been reported as part of a healthy oral microbiome.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOral Cavity is the Gateway to the Body: Role of Oral Health Professionals: A Narrative Review
Iyer, P. (2023) · Journal of the California Dental Association · doi:10.1080/19424396.2023.2193372 · Cited by 20
Rathnayake, R. A. C., Zhao, Z., McLaughlin, N., Li, W., Yan, Y., Chen, L. L., Xie, Q., Wu, C. D., Mathew, M. T., & Wang, R. R. (2023) · International Journal of Biological Macromolecules · doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128773 · Cited by 14
Oral bacteriophages: metagenomic clues to interpret microbiomes
Banar, M., Rokaya, D., Azizian, R., Khurshid, Z., & Banakar, M. (2024) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.16947 · Cited by 14
“The additional fungal genera related to the oral cavity are Aureobasidium, Cladosporium, Malassezia, Aspergillus, Saccharomycetales, Cryptococcus, and Fusarium ( Radaic & Kapila, 2021 ; Deo & Deshmukh, 2019 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialSalivary Biomarkers in Breast Cancer: From Salivaomics to Salivaoncoomics
Bel’skaya, L. V., & Dyachenko, E. I. (2024) · Frontiers in Bioscience-Landmark · doi:10.31083/j.fbl2907253 · Cited by 16
“The oral cavity is populated by a huge number of microorganisms and is second only to the intestinal microbiota in this diversity [112].”
BackgroundOral microbiome and its relationship with oral cancer
Wang, S., Tan, X., Cheng, J., Liu, Z., Zhou, H., Liao, J., Wang, X., & Liu, H. (2024) · Journal of Cancer Research and Therapeutics · doi:10.4103/jcrt.jcrt_44_24 · Cited by 18
Exploring the gut microbiome and head and neck cancer interplay
SHETTY, V. S., & Shetty, S. S. (2024) · Pathology - Research and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.prp.2024.155603 · Cited by 14
Agurto, M. I. G., Valenzuela, N. O., Canedo-Marroquín, G., Espinoza, D., & Tortora, S. C. (2024) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers16203545 · Cited by 16
“Disruptions in this balance can lead to various oral and systemic health issues [5].”
BackgroundPeriodontal pathogens and obesity in the context of cardiovascular risks across age groups
Leonov, G. E., Varaeva, Y. R., Николаевна, Л. Е., Vasilyev, A. V., Vladimirskaya, O., Korotkova, T., Nikityuk, D., & Starodubova, A. V. (2025) · Frontiers in Oral Health · doi:10.3389/froh.2024.1488833 · Cited by 14
Streptococcus mutans-derived extracellular vesicles promote skin wound healing via tRNA cargo
Oh, S. Y., Kim, D., Lee, K. Y., Ha, D., Kim, T.-L., Kwon, T., Kim, J. W., Lee, H., Choi, S., & Hong, S. (2025) · Journal of Nanobiotechnology · doi:10.1186/s12951-025-03410-1 · Cited by 15
Stefura, T., Zapała, B., Stój, A., Gosiewski, T., Skomarovska, O., Krzysztofik, M., Pędziwiatr, M., & Major, P. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9123863 · Cited by 14
Sabella, F. M., de Feiria, S. N. B., Ribeiro, A. A., Theodoro, L. H., Höfling, J. F., Parisotto, T. M., & Duque, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Dental Medicine · doi:10.3389/fdmed.2021.718441 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Deo, P., & Deshmukh, R.
- Affiliations
- Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) (IN)
- Venue
- Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 122
- ISSN
- 0973-029X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6503789
- OpenAlex
- W2952216579
- Semantic Scholar
- 011d7d246666d3378bdbf330e6a83816e349f558
- Cited by
- 1,121
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 162 · 2025: 214 · 2024: 238 · 2023: 191 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 129 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 87.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-sa
- Locations
- Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › Periodontics › Oral microbiology and periodontitis research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › General Dentistry › Oral Health Pathology and Treatment
- Keywords
- oral microbiota, oral health, oral diseases, microbial colonization, oral mucosa, dental plaque, next-generation sequencing, precision medicine
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