Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity

Aas, Jørn A.; Paster, Bruce J.; Stokes, Lauren N.; Olsen, Ingar; Dewhirst, Floyd E.

doi:10.1128/jcm.43.11.5721-5732.2005

Cited by 3,092Oral microbiology and periodontitis researchGut microbiota and healthMicrobial Community Ecology and Physiology

Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity

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Aas, Jørn A., Paster, Bruce J., Stokes, Lauren N., Olsen, Ingar, Dewhirst, Floyd E.·2005·Journal of Clinical Microbiology

DOI 10.1128/jcm.43.11.5721-5732.2005PMC PMC1287824

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Abstract

More than 700 bacterial species or phylotypes, of which over 50% have not been cultivated, have been detected in the oral cavity. Our purposes were (i) to utilize culture-independent molecular techniques to extend our knowledge on the breadth of bacterial diversity in the healthy human oral cavity, including not-yet-cultivated bacteria species, and (ii) to determine the site and subject specificity of bacterial colonization. Nine sites from five clinically healthy subjects were analyzed. Sites included tongue dorsum, lateral sides of tongue, buccal epithelium, hard palate, soft palate, supragingival plaque of tooth surfaces, subgingival plaque, maxillary anterior vestibule, and tonsils. 16S rRNA genes from sample DNA were amplified, cloned, and transformed into Escherichia coli. Sequences of 16S rRNA genes were used to determine species identity or closest relatives. In 2,589 clones, 141 predominant species were detected, of which over 60% have not been cultivated. Thirteen new phylotypes were identified. Species common to all sites belonged to the genera Gemella, Granulicatella, Streptococcus, and Veillonella. While some species were subject specific and detected in most sites, other species were site specific. Most sites possessed 20 to 30 different predominant species, and the number of predominant species from all nine sites per individual ranged from 34 to 72. Species typically associated with periodontitis and caries were not detected. There is a distinctive predominant bacterial flora of the healthy oral cavity that is highly diverse and site and subject specific. It is important to fully define the human microflora of the healthy oral cavity before we can understand the role of bacteria in oral disease.

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Alterations in the oral microbiota are responsible for developing and promoting many oral diseases, including periodontal disease.
“It is now known that alterations in the oral microbiota are responsible for developing and promoting many oral diseases, including periodontal disease.”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
Induction and progression of periodontal disease are promoted by a dysbiosis of the oral commensal microbiota, which may affect the host's immune defenses, causing an inflammatory response that ultimately leads to destruction of the periodontium in a susceptible host.
“The induction and progression of the disease are promoted by a dysbiosis of the oral commensal microbiota, which may affect the host’s immune defenses, causing an inflammatory response that ultimately leads to irredeemable destruction of the periodontium (i.e., alveolar bone and periodontal ligament) in a susceptible host [7,8,9].”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
Diet provides nutritional sources for the oral microbiota and exerts a selective pressure favoring the survival and replication of organisms best adapted to utilize specific food resources derived from the host.
“Diet provides nutritional sources for the oral microbiota and exerts a selective pressure, favoring the survival and replication of organisms best adapted to utilize specific food resources derived from the host [8].”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
High dietary intake of beta-carotene (≥7.07 mg/d) is associated with a significantly lower percentage of sites with probing depth >3 mm after nonsurgical periodontal treatment.
“High dietary intake of beta-carotene (≥7.07 mg/d) was associated by Dodington et al. with a significantly lower percentage of sites with probing depth >3 mm after nonsurgical periodontal treatment.”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
The effects of high beta-carotene intake on periodontal parameters are greater in adult nonsmokers than in adult smokers with chronic periodontitis.
“These effects on periodontal parameters were found to be greater in adult nonsmokers than in adult smokers with chronic periodontitis [8].”
From A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System’s Response during Periodontitis (2022) · cites this paper as [8]

Commensal microbiota comprise the majority of cells in the body and play a key role in human health.
“Commensal microbiota comprise the majority of cells in the body and play a key role in human health1-5,10.”
From Sequencing ancient calcified dental plaque shows changes in oral microbiota with dietary shifts of the Neolithic and Industrial revolutions (2013) · cites this paper as [2]
Further diversity exists between the varied micro-ecologies of the mouth, such as the tooth surface, gingiva, hard and soft palate, and even regionally on the tongue.
“Further diversity exists between the varied micro-ecologies of the mouth[174,178], such as the tooth surface, gingiva, hard and soft palate, and even regionally on the tongue (Figure 2)[173,176,179].”
From Enterosalivary nitrate metabolism and the microbiome: Intersection of microbial metabolism, nitric oxide and diet in cardiac and pulmonary vascular health (2017) · cites this paper as [176]
Up to 80% of oral bacteria are dominated by about 200 species in the Phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria, with contributions from Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Fusobacteria totaling upwards of 95% of all identified oral microbiota.
“Up to 80% of oral bacteria are dominated by about 200 species in the Phyla Firmicutes (esp. Streptococcus, Veillonella, Granulicatella, Gemella spp.) and Proteobacteria (esp. Neisseria, Haemophilus spp.), with contributions from Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Fusobacteria totaling upwards of 95% of all identified oral microbiota (Figure 2)[171–177].”
From Enterosalivary nitrate metabolism and the microbiome: Intersection of microbial metabolism, nitric oxide and diet in cardiac and pulmonary vascular health (2017) · cites this paper as [176]
The bacterial taxa found in this study are similar to those in the Human Oral Microbiome Database and those typically reported in other studies of mainstream human subjects.
“The bacterial taxa found in this study are similar to those represented in the Human Oral Microbiome Database (HOMD), as well as those typically reported in other studies of mainstream human subjects [17,18].”
From Analysis of the Effects of Dietary Pattern on the Oral Microbiome of Elite Endurance Athletes (2019) · cites this paper as [18]

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Authors: Aas, J. A., Paster, B. J., Stokes, L. N., Olsen, I., & Dewhirst, F. E.
Affiliations: University of Oslo (NO)
Harvard University (US)
The Forsyth Institute (US)
ORCID: Paster, Bruce J.
Olsen, Ingar
Dewhirst, Floyd E.
Venue: Journal of Clinical Microbiology
Publisher: American Society for Microbiology
Published: 2005-11
Volume: 43
Issue: 11
Pages: 5721-5732
ISSN: 0095-1137 (ISSN-L)
1098-660X
DOI: 10.1128/jcm.43.11.5721-5732.2005
PMC: PMC1287824
OpenAlex: W2095566926
Cited by: 3,092
References: 35
Citations by year: 2026: 74 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 149 · 2023: 201 · 2022: 197 · 2021: 210 · 2020: 209 · 2019: 209 · 2018: 202 · 2017: 181 · 2016: 166 · 2015: 173 · 2014: 170 · 2013: 134 · 2012: 140
FWCI: 59.78
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: journals.asm.org/non-commercial-tdm-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Clinical Microbiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Universitetet i Oslo
National Institutes of Health
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (DE11443, R01DE011443)
Topics: Health Sciences › Dentistry › Periodontics › Oral microbiology and periodontitis research
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Microbial Community Ecology and Physiology
Keywords: oral microbiota, bacterial diversity, uncultured bacteria, 16S rRNA gene sequencing, supragingival plaque, subgingival plaque, tongue dorsum, tonsil, Gemella, Granulicatella, Streptococcus, Veillonella, periodontitis, dental caries
MeSH terms: Bacteria, Humans, Maxillary Sinus, Molecular Sequence Data, Mouth, Phylogeny, RNA, Bacterial, RNA, Ribosomal, 16S, Species Specificity, Palatine Tonsil, Polymerase Chain Reaction

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Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity

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