The Skills of Document Use

“Previous research has explored some of the dimensions used in the SEEK unit (Brem et al., 2001; Britt & Aglinskas, 2002; Rouet, 2006; Slotta & Linn, 2000), but the SEEK condition consolidated them and tested for the effects of such instruction on learning outcomes from a new unit.”

“…2000 ; Eagleton, Guinee, & Langlais, 2003 ; Kuiper & Volman, 2008 ), to read and infer which link may be most useful within a set of search engine results (Henry, 2006 ), and to scan efficiently for relevant information on websites (Rouet, 2006 ; Rouet, Ros, Goumi, MacedoRouet, & Dinet, 2011 ).”

“This, however, seems to be a great challenge to most individuals regardless of age (Rouet, 2006).”

“…357 produce a coherent solution to a problem or an answer to an inquiry question (Bråten, Strømsø, & Britt, 2009; Britt & Aglinskas, 2002; Goldman, 2004, 2010; Lawless, Goldman, Gomez, Manning, & Braasch, in press; Leu et al., 2008; Rouet, 2006; Wallace, Kupperman, Krajcik, & Soloway, 2000).”

“…from the emerging models of multiple source use, such as the Multiple Documents-Task-Based Relevance Assessment and content extraction model (Rouet, 2006; Rouet & Britt, 2011), there is a growing awareness that several factors, such as individuals’ epistemic beliefs, task directives, or the…”

“However, effectively selecting and making use of multiple sources of information requires a set of advanced literacy skills that extend beyond word decoding and passage comprehension (Britt & Gabrys, 2000; Goldman, 2004; Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, & Cammack, 2004; Rouet, 2006).”

“However, studies reveal that students find it difficult to use multiple sources to construct an integrated account; instead, they frequently consider their task to be the accumulation of information (e.g., Rouet, 2006; Wineburg, 1991; Wolfe & Goldman, 2005).”

“Research in this area is still in its infancy, and new models will need to be developed to help researchers and educators to address the advantages and disadvantages to using new technologies for reading texts (e.g., Rouet, 2006; Hartman et al., 2010).”

“Just as a speaker in a conversation has a purpose in conveying a message to the listener (Clark, 1996 ), the writer tries to convey a message to the reader (Rouet, 2006 ).”

“sources ( Jenkins, 2006; Rouet, 2006).”

“This seems to be a great challenge to most readers, regardless of age (Rouet, 2006); and the ability to meet this challenge might be influenced by characteristics of the task, as well as by characteristics of the reader.”

“Models of multiple text comprehension—such as the documents model (DM) and the multiple-document task-based relevance assessment and content extraction (MD-TRACE) model of Britt, Rouet, and colleagues—are then presented due to their focus on readers’ source representations when reading multiple texts (Britt, Perfetti,…”

“By tagging information units of sources, the reader may differentiate between documents and evaluate the contribution of each document to a comprehensive understanding of the topic or situation (Rouet, 2006).”

“Like cognitivist models of multiple text use (Rouet, 2006; Rouet & Britt, 2011), the CAEM examines processing initiated by a task assigned to or self-developed by students.”

“Navigating hypertext (i.e., networks of text pages connected through electronic links) involves a complex set of cognitive processes that are partly similar to those involved in the comprehension of printed texts (Dillon, 1994; Foltz, 1996; Rouet, 2006).”

“Recently, several scholars have emphasized that the immediate access to scientific information on the Internet comes with new challenges in the acquisition of knowledge, including the need to handle conflicting information presented by sources of varying topic expertise (Goldman et al., 2011; Leu et al., 2007; Rouet,…”

“afford unique learning opportunities, they also represent unique challenges for most readers regardless of age (Rouet 2006).”

“Therefore, when searching the Web, the critical evaluation of sources and information is a very important sub-skill in information problem solving (Brand-Gruwel & Stadtler, 2011; Kammerer & Gerjets, 2012; Rouet, 2006).”

“However, in present-day knowledge societies, readers both in and out of school typically learn about different topics from multiple documents that often present conflicting information (Goldman 2004; Rouet 2006).”

“In these stages, additional working memory “slots” were needed for recalling the terms from long-term memory and possibly for holding in working memory information from previously seen documents (Rouet, 2006).”

“Thus, students need new literacy skills involved in the processes of reading, comprehending, writing, and using multiple documents (Rouet, 2006), not only for academic success but also in the world outside school.”

“As a starting point for identifying factors that potentially facilitate source evaluations on SERPs we chose a conceptual framework proposed by Lazonder and Rouet (2008; see also Rouet 2006).”

“…(Otero and Kintsch 1992), strategically searching through hypermedia (Azevedo and Cromley 2004; Hadwin and Winne 2001), generating causal inferences in science (Graesser and Bertus 1998), integrating related information sources (Rouet 2006), and formulating accurate coherent mental models.”

“…of continuous texts e including literary texts, but also to deploy information-processing strategies such as analyzing, synthesizing, integrating and interpreting relevant information from multiple texts and information sources (Rouet, 2006; Spiro, Deschryver, Hagerman, Morsink, & Thompson, 2015).”

“Principle 4 Reading is a purposeful activity, aimed at attaining a coherent understanding of a text that is sufficient for the reader’s goals (McCrudden, Magliano, & Schraw, 2011; McCrudden & Schraw, 2007; Rouet, 2006).”

“(c) Making connections visible – Finally, because some students might not spontaneously construct links between sources and claims and among sources (Rouet 2006), participants were asked to draw an arrow from each source to the claim it supports and to draw links of agreement and disagreement…”

“Although sourcing is but one component of multiple document literacy, with content integration considered another important aspect (Braasch et al., 2018), it has long been regarded as crucial by researchers in this area (Rouet, 2006).”

“Empirical work has demonstrated that attention to such sourcing information may be of particular import for students’ multiple text evaluation and comprehension and performance on MSU tasks (Bra˚ten, Strømsø, & Britt, 2009; Perfetti, Rouet, & Britt, 1999; Rouet, 2006).”

“A high quality synthesis also requires readers to compare and contrast information and different perspectives presented in multiple online resources (Cho & Afflerbach, 2015; Rouet, 2006).”

“Readers select important ideas from multiple resources, and they organize, connect, compare, and contrast these ideas to build a coherent understanding of the issue (Cho & Afflerbach, 2015; Rouet, 2006; Strømsø, Bråten, & Britt, 2010).”

“These source categories were based on the Rouet et al. (1996) study and Britt and Aglinskas (2002) reanalysis of data from that study.”

“, and to integrate information from multiple pages (Afflerbach & Cho, 2009; Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis & Walraven, 2009; Rouet, 2006; Salmerón, Strømsø, Kammerer, Stadtler, & van den Broek, 2017).”

“Text comprehension, a precursor to learning, is ‘a complex, memory-based process that allows the integration of information into a meaningful mental representation’ [9].”

“Generating a coherent representation based on multiple texts is a demanding task that builds on numerous top-down and bottom-up processes (Rouet, 2006; Britt and Rouet, 2012); in order to construct a coherent and complete representation of multiple texts, readers first need to efficiently process each text separately…”

“In 21st century learning environments, these core abilities are more important as the sheer amount and quality of information available alters the nature of the construct (Coiro, 2009; Lawless, Goldman, Gomez, Manning, & Braasch, 2012; Metzger, 2007; Rouet, 2006; Rouet & Britt, 2011).”

“Third, the sophistication of the tasks that students are expected to perform also changes (Ozuru, Rowe, O’Reilly, & McNamara, 2008; Rouet, 2006).”

“…as to read for a specific purpose or to adopt a specific perspective during reading (Pichert & Anderson, 1977), or by questions that require inferences or elaborative interrogation of the material (Rickards & Denner, 1978; Rouet, 2006), or by priming (van der Laan, Papies, Hooge, & Smeets, 2017).”

“Our findings could perhaps contribute to a more differentiated view of both text processing and graphic processing from a general, developmental and instructional perspective, as they suggest that text and graphics play fundamentally different roles in mental model construction (Goldman and Rakestraw 2000; Graesser et…”

“Again, given the great challenge involved in searching for and using information located on the Internet (Rouet, 2006), this relationship may suggest that the more naive beliefs students hold about Internet-based knowledge and knowing, the more naive they may be about the ease with which relevant Internet-based source…”

“Such comprehension conditions require a cognizance that documents are socially constructed artifacts in which authors and publication venues might support particular agendas (Britt et al., 2013; Rouet, 2006).”

“The theory of multiple documents comprehension (Britt et al., 2018; Perfetti et al., 1999; Rouet, 2006) describes how, to achieve their reading goals, readers select, evaluate and use information from more than one document.”

“Cognitive flexibility is a relevant objective also for learning with multiple texts, a field that has started to attract research in educational psychology only a decade or so ago (Perfetti, Britt, & Rouet, 1999; Rouet, 2006; Rouet, Britt, Mason, & Perfetti, 1996).”

“Since source recall was quite low, we deemed it of interest to assess whether a task designed to enhance source-processing relevance could increase the recall of information sources (McCrudden & Schraw, 2007; Rouet, 2006).”

“Deep reading is particularly important in the 21st century because progressively more documents are not edited for factuality and writing quality (Rouet, 2006).”

“…and interpret extended pieces of continuous texts e including literary texts, but also to deploy information-processing strategies such as analysing, synthesising, integrating and interpreting relevant information from multiple texts and information sources (Rouet, 2013[16]; Spiro, 2015[17]).”

“For instance, given that multiple text use has been identified as a complex, cognitively demanding process (Rouet, 2006), interest has been proposed as a factor easing cognitive load during multiple text task completion, by increasing students’ cognitive absorption (Dias, Gomes, & Correia, 1999; Kang & Kim, 2006; Nied…”