CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 1,607Business Strategies and Management ResearchBusiness and Management StudiesManagement Theory and Practice

Levels issues in theory development, data collection and analysis

Klein, Katherine J., Dansereau, Fred, Hall, Rosalie J.·1994·The Academy of Management Review
DOI 10.2307/258703
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

De<plt » past entreaties to organizational theorists and reseontchars to address levels issues more carefully, levels issues continue to arouse confusion and controversy within &e organizational literature. We highlight three alternative assumptions that underlie the specifica-tion of levels of theory throuj^out mganizational behavior: (a) homo-geneity within higher level units, (b) independence from higher Uvel tinits. and (c) heterogeneity within higher level ludts. These assump-tions influence the nature of theoretical constructs and propositions and should, ideally, also influence data collection, analysis, and in-terpretation. Greater attention to levels issues will strengthen orga-nizational theory development and research. Consider a levels-of-analysis issue arising in contemporary Ameri-can politics: How should electoral college votes be allocated In the pres-idential election? Currently, electoral college votes are allocated at the state level in all but two states (Maine and Nebraska). Thus, in 48 states,

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.2307/258703

Cites

79 of 79 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Authentic leadership operates at multiple levels of analysis, including individual, dyad, group, and organizational levels.

    “From the outset, we have viewed authentic leadership as operating at multiple levels of analysis, including the individual, dyad, group and organizational levels (Dansereau &amp; Yammarino, 1998; Dansereau, Yammarino, &amp; Markham, 1995; Klein, Dansereau, &amp; Hall, 1994).”

    From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Klein, Dansereau, & Hall, 1994

  • Our findings expand the platform literature by applying multilevel thinking and providing a cross-level theory of transaction platforms because we provide insights into how organisational factors influence the behaviour of individuals.

    “Our findings expand the platform literature by applying multilevel thinking and providing a cross-level theory of transaction platforms because we provide insights into how organisational factors influence the behaviour of individuals (Klein et al. 1994).”

    From Content Creators Between Platform Control and User Autonomy: The Role of Algorithms and Revenue Sharing (2023) · cites this paper as Klein et al. 1994

  • Small samples and few organizational units are frequent difficulties in leadership research, especially at higher organizational or system levels.

    “However, sample size and number of organizational units (e.g., service teams) are common challenges in studies of leadership, particularly as higher organizational or system levels are studied (Klein, Dansereau, & Hall, 1994; Klein & Kozlowski, 2000).”

    From The Roles of System and Organizational Leadership in System-Wide Evidence-Based Intervention Sustainment: A Mixed-Method Study (2016) · cites this paper as Klein, Dansereau, & Hall, 1994

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Klein, K. J., Dansereau, F., & Hall, R. J.
Affiliations
  • University of Maryland, College Park (US)
  • University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
  • University of Akron (US)
ORCID
Venue
The Academy of Management Review
Publisher
Academy of Management
Published
1994-04
Volume
19
Issue
2
Pages
195
ISSN
0363-7425 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.2307/258703
OpenAlex
W2122397415
Cited by
1,607
References
79
Citations by year
2026: 26 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 53 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 70 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 98
FWCI
36.51
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
Academy of Management Review (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Business Strategies and Management Research
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Business and Management Studies
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Management Theory and Practice
Keywords
levels of analysis, theory development, data collection, data analysis, multilevel analysis

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review