Age-related differences in sleep architecture and electroencephalogram in adolescents in the National Consortium on Alcohol and Neurodevelopment in Adolescence sample
Open accessAbstract
To investigate age-related differences in polysomnographic and sleep electroencephalographic (EEG) measures, considering sex, pubertal stage, ethnicity, and scalp topography in a large group of adolescents in the National Consortium on Alcohol and NeuroDevelopment in Adolescence (NCANDA). Following an adaptation/clinical screening night, 141 healthy adolescents (12–21 y, 64 girls) had polysomnographic recordings, from which sleep staging and EEG measures were derived. The setting was the SRI International Human Sleep Laboratory and University of Pittsburgh Pediatric Sleep Laboratory. Older age was associated with a lower percentage of N3 sleep, accompanied by higher percentages of N2, N1, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Older boys compared with younger boys had more frequent awakenings and wakefulness after sleep onset, effects that were absent in girls. Delta (0.3–4 Hz) EEG power in nonrapid eye movement NREM sleep was lower in older than younger adolescents at all electrode sites, with steeper slopes of decline over the occipital scalp. EEG power in higher frequency bands was also lower in older adolescents than younger adolescents, with equal effects across electrodes. Percent delta power in the first NREM period was similar across age. African Americans had lower EEG power across frequency bands (delta to sigma) compared with Caucasians. Finally, replacing age with pubertal status in the models showed similar relationships. Substantial differences in sleep architecture and EEG were evident across adolescence in this large group, with sex modifying some relationships. Establishment and follow-up of this cohort allows the investigation of sleep EEG-brain structural relationships and the effect of behaviors, such as alcohol and substance use, on sleep EEG maturation. Data presented here from a large sample of male and female adolescents show substantial age-related differences in sleep architecture and electroencephalogram across this critical period of development. Age effects were generally larger for boys, who showed more disturbed sleep architecture at an older age, than girls. There is a substantial age-related decline in delta power, which is evident across the scalp, particularly in the occipital region. However, there was no age difference in percent delta power in the first nonrapid eye movement period, suggesting stability of homeostatic sleep mechanisms across adolescence. Longitudinal tracking of this cohort will allow investigation of age-related changes in sleep in conjunction with structural brain changes, as well as how adolescent behaviors affect maturation of the sleep electroencephalogram.
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Slow-wave sleep decreases about 60% across adolescence, possibly reflecting synaptic pruning and resulting efficiency of network connectivity.
“Slow-wave sleep (SWS) decreases ~60% across adolescence (49), possibly reflecting synaptic pruning and resulting efficiency of network connectivity (50,51).”
From Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on Addiction Vulnerability in Adolescents (2018) · cites this paper as [49]
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BackgroundSleep and Adolescent Depression
Fontanellaz-Castiglione, C. E. G., & Tarokh, L. (2023) · Clinical and Translational Neuroscience · doi:10.3390/ctn8010003 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“When analyzed longitudinally, a higher number of NREM spindles at the age of 5 years predicted fewer peer problems one year later [113,114].”
BackgroundHigher sleep spindle activity is associated with fewer false memories in adolescent girls
Kuula, L., Tamminen, J., Makkonen, T., Merikanto, I., Räikkönen, K., & Pesonen, A. (2018) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2018.12.005 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“These changes mean that adolescence can be seen as a period of transition from child-like sleep (typically heavier on SWS) towards adult-like sleep (Baker et al., 2016) (lighter on SWS, heavier on spindle density and frequency) (Purcell et al., 2017).”
InfluentialMenghini, L., Yüksel, D., Prouty, D., Baker, F. C., King, C. D., & de Zambotti, M. (2022) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2022.11.006 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Disturbed Sleep as a Mechanism of Race Differences in Nocturnal Blood Pressure Non-Dipping
Bowman, M. A., Buysse, D. J., Foust, J. E., Oyefusi, V., & Hall, M. H. (2019) · Current Hypertension Reports · doi:10.1007/s11906-019-0954-7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Bestmann, A., Conzelmann, A., Baving, L., & Prehn‐Kristensen, A. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224166 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Not only cognitive performance increases over the course of maturation but sleep also changes dramatically from childhood to adulthood: While deep sleep stages 3 and 4 as well as rapid-eve movement (REM) sleep decrease, the amount of sleep stage 2 (S2) increases [9, 10].”
BackgroundThe falling asleep process in adolescents
de Zambotti, M., Goldstone, A., Forouzanfar, M., Javitz, H. S., Claudatos, S. A., Colrain, I. M., & Baker, F. C. (2019) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsz312 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Kozhemiako, N., Buckley, A. W., Chervin, R. D., Redline, S. S., & Purcell, S. (2023) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2023.103552 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“In contrast, the reports diverge for stage R sleep showing either an increase (Baker et al., 2016; Feinberg et al., 2012; Ohayon et al., 2004), no change (Tarokh et al., 2011; Tarokh & Carskadon, 2010), or a decrease (Scholle et al., 2011) in stage R percentage and/or duration.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSleep and Neuroaffective Development from Early to Late Adolescence
Baker, A. E., & McMakin, D. L. (2024) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-010923-093914 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The role of intrinsic reward in adolescent word learning
Bains, A., Barber, A., Nell, T., Ripollés, P., & Krishnan, S. (2024) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13513 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Substantial changes in sleep patterns are observed between childhood and adolescence, with adolescents experiencing sleep deprivation due to shifts in their circadian clock and environmental pressures such as early school starts (Baker et al., 2016).”
BackgroundYüksel, D., Baker, F. C., Goldstone, A., Claudatos, S. A., Forouzanfar, M., Prouty, D., Colrain, I. M., & de Zambotti, M. (2020) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2020.06.004 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Relevance of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms to Adolescent Substance Use
Claudatos, S. A., Baker, F. C., & Hasler, B. P. (2019) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-019-00277-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Benedetti, D., Frati, E., Kiss, O., Yüksel, D., Faraguna, U., Hasler, B. P., Franzen, P. L., Clark, D. B., Baker, F. C., & de Zambotti, M. (2023) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2023.07.019 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Albinni, B., Baker, F. C., Javitz, H. S., Hasler, B. P., Franzen, P. L., Clark, D. B., & de Zambotti, M. (2023) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13886 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Yen, Y., Chen, M. W., Lim, J. X., & Chew, K. Y. (2025) · Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery · doi:10.1097/prs.0000000000012364 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“51 In contrast, LVA provides continuous, passive glymphatic clearance independent of sleep patterns or experimental vascular therapies, offering a practical alternative overcoming existing limitations.”
A nationwide cross-sectional study of difficulty waking up for school among adolescents
Kinoshita, Y., Itani, O., Otsuka, Y., et al. (2021) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsab157 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Jara-Diaz, S. R., & Rosales-Salas, J. (2020) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2020.03.025 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sleep Disorders in Adolescence
Chawla, O., & Gupta, R. M. (2020) · Sleep and Vigilance · doi:10.1007/s41782-020-00117-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kiss, O., Goldstone, A., de Zambotti, M., Yüksel, D., Hasler, B. P., Franzen, P. L., Brown, S. A., Bellis, M. D. D., Nagel, B. J., Nooner, K. B., et al. (2023) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsad113 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kiss, O., Qu, Z., Müller‐Oehring, E. M., Baker, F. C., & Mirzasoleiman, B. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.10.158 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“We focus on pre-pandemic measures of sleep, given the profound changes in sleep behavior across adolescence (Colrain and Baker, 2011; Baker et al., 2016; Gradisar et al., 2011; Feinberg and Campbell, 2010; Feinberg and Campbell, 2013; Carskadon, 2011) with later bedtime, and shorter sleep duration…”
BackgroundPalatine, E., Phillips, M. L., & Soehner, A. M. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.03.058 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Chen, X., Li, S. X., Ho, C. S., Chan, J. W. Y., Chan, L.-K., Lee, T. M. C., Wing, Y. K., & Chan, N. Y. (2025) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2025.100570 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to control for age and sex in each comparison of PSG parameters between resilience groups, given their known effects on sleep architectures and resilience due to biological and psychosocial maturations in adolescents (Baker et al., 2016).”
Sleep disorders in adolescents
Puravath, F., & Bhargava, S. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818872-9.00097-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Walsh, N. A., Phillips, E.-M., Páez, A., Cross, N. E., Dang‐Vu, T. T., & Perrault, A. A. (2026) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.70388 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mapping Typical and Altered Neurodevelopment with Sleep Macro- and Micro-ArchitecturePreprint
Kozhemiako, N., Buckley, A. W., Chervin, R. D., Redline, S. S., & Purcell, S. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.15.520643 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“With respect to sleep efficiency, for which both age-related increases (Baker et al., 2012; Scholle et al., 2011) as well as decreases (Baker et al., 2016) have been reported, our findings pointed to a significant decline in both cohorts.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialZhao, S., Wang, J., Gueye‐Ndiaye, S., Li, X., Owens, J. A., Gold, D. R., Chen, J. T., Phipatanakul, W., & Redline, S. S. (2026) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsag051 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Poor subjective sleep reported by people living with HIV is associated with impaired working memory
Zahr, N. M., Sullivan, E. V., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2023) · NeuroImmune Pharmacology and Therapeutics · doi:10.1515/nipt-2023-0010 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Polysomnography studies are the gold standard for evaluation of sleep architecture, but requirements for overnight participation and complex data analyses procedures have historically precluded sufficiently-sampled evaluations (cf., [9–11]).”
BackgroundSahin, S., Erdman, A. L., Loewen, A., Miller, S. M., Jones, J. C., Chung, J. S., Janosky, J. J., & Ulman, S. M. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.11356 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Paggetti, A., Lazzaro, G., Bacaro, V., Vanacore, N., Vicari, S., & Menghini, D. (2025) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2025.106817 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Forouzanfar, M., Sardooeinasab, S., Baker, F. C., Colrain, I. M., & de Zambotti, M. (2025) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.70212 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“For a description of the NCANDA sleep study methodology, sample characteristics and sleep outcomes at the baseline assessment please refer to Baker et al. (2016).”
Hany, M., Zidan, M. H. E.-D., Elhadidy, M. S., Abouelnasr, A. A., Shafei, M. M. E., Matrawy, K. A., Kassem, A. M., Hamdy, A., Elmongui, E., El-Ramly, T. A., et al. (2025) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1007/s11695-025-08352-z · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Talwar, P., Deantoni, M., Egroo, M. V., Muto, V., Chylinski, D., Koshmanova, E., Jaspar, M., Meyer, C., Degueldre, C., Berthomier, C., et al. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-47753-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…the limited age range of our sample, we found significant decreases in SWE (p 0.001), SE (p = 0.002), and REM theta power (p = 0.001) with age and significant increases in REM arousals (p = 0.001), which is in line with previously published age-related changes in these variable 22–24 (Suppl.”
ResultInfluentialDumortier, J., Mariman, A., Boone, J., Delesie, L. M., Tobback, E., Vogelaers, D., & Bourgois, J. (2021) · International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance · doi:10.1123/ijspp.2020-0930 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Baker, F. C., Yüksel, D., & de Zambotti, M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822963-7.00112-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Using wearable EEG to examine age trends in sleep macro- and micro-architecture across adolescencePreprint
Lokhandwala, S., Hayes, R., Hayes, R., Sathe, S., Elder, I., Corcoran, M., Horta, B., Fray-Witzer, M., Keller, L., Chan, S., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.10.10.681690 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Normal Sleep: Interindividual Differences and Sleep Variability
Reis, M. J. F. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85074-6_2
Talwar, P., Deantoni, M., Egroo, M. V., Muto, V., Chylinski, D., Koshmanova, E., Jaspar, M., Meyer, C., Degueldre, C., Berthomier, C., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.07.17.549285
Gong, N. N., Mahat, A., Ahmad, S., Glaze, D. G., Maletić‐Savatić, M., McGinley, M. J., Morse, A. M., Rodriguez, A. J., Thurm, A. E., Redline, S. S., et al. (2025) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaf157
Walsh, N. A., Phillips, E.-M., Páez, A., Cross, N. E., Dang‐Vu, T. T., & Perrault, A. A. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.19.700353
Bellmont-Olson, L. M., Wright, M., Müller‐Oehring, E. M., Baker, F. C., Kiss, O., Pohl, K. M., Gotlib, I. H., & Schulte, T. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2026.101129
- Authors
- Baker, F. C., Willoughby, A. R., Massimiliano, D. Z., Franzen, P. L., Prouty, D., Javitz, H., Hasler, B., Clark, D. B., & Colrain, I. M.
- Affiliations
- SRI International (US)
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Corresponding author
- Colrain, Ian M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- SLEEP
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-07-01
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1429-1439
- ISSN
- 0161-8105 (ISSN-L)
- 1550-9109
- PMC
- PMC4909625
- OpenAlex
- W2419246522
- Cited by
- 61
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 7
- FWCI
- 3.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- SLEEP (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (K01DA032557)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- sleep architecture, sleep EEG, adolescents, age-related changes, sex differences, pubertal stage, delta power, NREM sleep, REM sleep, wake after sleep onset, sleep awakenings, EEG frequency bands, scalp topography, occipital EEG, African American adolescents, sleep maturation
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Brain, Child, Cross-Sectional Studies, Electroencephalography, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Factors, Sleep, Polysomnography, Adolescent Development, Young Adult
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