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Traffic-Related Air Pollution, Particulate Matter, and Autism
Open accessAbstract
CONTEXT: Autism is a heterogeneous disorder with genetic and environmental factors likely contributing to its origins. Examination of hazardous pollutants has suggested the importance of air toxics in the etiology of autism, yet little research has examined its association with local levels of air pollution using residence-specific exposure assignments. OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between traffic-related air pollution, air quality, and autism. DESIGN: This population-based case-control study includes data obtained from children with autism and control children with typical development who were enrolled in the Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment study in California. The mother's address from the birth certificate and addresses reported from a residential history questionnaire were used to estimate exposure for each trimester of pregnancy and first year of life. Traffic-related air pollution was assigned to each location using a line-source air-quality dispersion model. Regional air pollutant measures were based on the Environmental Protection Agency's Air Quality System data. Logistic regression models compared estimated and measured pollutant levels for children with autism and for control children with typical development. SETTING: Case-control study from California. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 279 children with autism and a total of 245 control children with typical development. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Crude and multivariable adjusted odds ratios (AORs) for autism. RESULTS: Children with autism were more likely to live at residences that had the highest quartile of exposure to traffic-related air pollution, during gestation (AOR, 1.98 [95% CI, 1.20-3.31]) and during the first year of life (AOR, 3.10 [95% CI, 1.76-5.57]), compared with control children. Regional exposure measures of nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter less than 2.5 and 10 μm in diameter (PM2.5 and PM10) were also associated with autism during gestation (exposure to nitrogen dioxide: AOR, 1.81 [95% CI, 1.37-3.09]; exposure to PM2.5: AOR, 2.08 [95% CI, 1.93-2.25]; exposure to PM10: AOR, 2.17 [95% CI, 1.49-3.16) and during the first year of life (exposure to nitrogen dioxide: AOR, 2.06 [95% CI, 1.37-3.09]; exposure to PM2.5: AOR, 2.12 [95% CI, 1.45-3.10]; exposure to PM10: AOR, 2.14 [95% CI, 1.46-3.12]). All regional pollutant estimates were scaled to twice the standard deviation of the distribution for all pregnancy estimates. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to traffic-related air pollution, nitrogen dioxide, PM2.5, and PM10 during pregnancy and during the first year of life was associated with autism. Further epidemiological and toxicological examinations of likely biological pathways will help determine whether these associations are causal.
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“In this line, Volk et al. (92) found that exposure during pregnancy and the first year of life to traffic-related air pollution was associated with autism (DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria based on the ADI-R and ADOS scales).”
From Gene × Environment Interactions in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms (2014) · cites this paper as [92]
In the citing paper
“Children residing in homes with the highest levels of modeled air pollution (>31.8 ppb) were three times as likely to have autism compared to children residing in homes with the lowest levels of exposure (<9.7 ppb).”
From Gene × Environment Interactions in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms (2014) · cites this paper as [92]
In the citing paper
“An increasing probability of autism was seen with increasing air pollution (nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter less than 2.5 and 10 μm in diameter: PM2.5 and PM10) with a plateau reached at a threshold above 25–30 ppb.”
From Gene × Environment Interactions in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms (2014) · cites this paper as [92]
In the citing paper
“research examining air pollution exposure employing indirect measures of exposure (such as distance to a freeway where emissions were measured) have reported associations to autism [256], while studies measuring emission levels close to the individuals’ homes have not [257].”
From The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (2019) · cites this paper as [256]
In the citing paper
“Using a leave-one-out analysis, we identified one study in particular [52] that was contributing to the majority of this heterogeneity.”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Multiple Airborne Pollutants and Autism Spectrum Disorder (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“One additional included study [53] also reported effect estimates for both PM10 and PM2.5 but ultimately was not included in the meta-analysis because upon personal communication with the study authors [64] it was determined that the study population was a subset of the population reported in a previous article [52] that was already included in the meta-analyses.”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Multiple Airborne Pollutants and Autism Spectrum Disorder (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
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“In the last few years there have been five key studies that have demonstrated a link between outdoor air pollution and autism (Becerra et al., 2013; Jung et al., 2013; Roberts et al., 2013; Volk et al., 2011, 2013).”
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“As the technology to measure daily atmospheric PM levels has improved, PM exposure has been implicated in a diverse range of systemic diseases, from atherosclerosis and diabetes to childhood autism.(10-13) Ambient PM has been implicated in a wide variety of pulmonary diseases, from decreases in functional pulmonary me…”
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Project TENDR: Targeting Environmental Neuro-Developmental Risks The TENDR Consensus Statement
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“5) and 10 mm (PM10) during pregnancy and during the first year of life were positively associated with autism [7].”
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Autism Spectrum Disorder: Interaction of Air Pollution with the MET Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Gene
Volk, H. E., Kerin, T., Lurmann, F., Hertz-Picciotto, I., McConnell, R., & Campbell, D. B. (2014) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000030 · Cited by 163
Self-citationDevelopmental impact of air pollution on brain function
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Fine particulate matter and the risk of autism spectrum disorder
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Phytoremediation of particulate matter from indoor air by Chlorophytum comosum L. plants
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“…itchy skin, burning eyes (Wolkoff et al. 2006), headaches (Wood 2003; Tseng et al. 2005), nausea, dizziness (Costa et al. 1995; Wood et al. 2002; Tseng et al. 2005), cancers (Costa et al. 1995; Brody 2001; Wood et al. 2002; Tseng et al. 2005; Wolverton 2008) and even death (Brody 2001; D’Amato…”
BackgroundInfluentialAir pollution and indoor settings
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“The heterogeneous clinical and biological phenotypes observed in ASD strongly suggest that in genetically susceptible individuals, environmental risk factors also combine or synergize to create a tipping or threshold point for dysfunction.”
InfluentialBhandari, R., Paliwal, J. K., & Kuhad, A. (2020) · Advances in neurobiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30402-7_4 · Cited by 167
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Association of Prenatal Exposure to Air Pollution With Autism Spectrum Disorder
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“…carried out in the United States found a consistently positive association between exposure to several air pollutants during pregnancy or during the first year of life and diagnosis of ASD (Becerra et al. 2013; Raz et al. 2015; Roberts et al. 2013; Volk et al. 2011, 2013; Windham et al. 2006).”
InfluentialSelf-citationAssociation between Early Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Working Memory and Attention
Rivas, I., Basagaña, X., Cirach, M., López-Vicente, M., Suades-González, E., Garcia-Esteban, R., Álvarez-Pedrerol, M., Dadvand, P., & Sunyer, J. (2019) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp3169 · Cited by 140
“…the fi rst years of life found associations with reduced psychomotor development (Guxens et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2014), as well as with autism spectrum disorder (Kalkbrenner et al. 2015; Volk et al. 2013) and impairment in cognitive development (Calderón-Garcidueñas et al. 2015; Chiu et al. 2016).”
Environmental pollution and mental health: a narrative review of literature
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Autism spectrum disorder and air pollution: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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“…association with residential proximity to agricultural pesticide applications (Shelton et al. 2014) or tra ffi c-related and regional air pollution (Volk et al. 2012), parental occupational exposures (McCanlies et al. 2012), maternal metabolic conditions (e.g., obesity) (Krakowiak et al. 2012),…”
Self-citationAir Pollution and Autism Spectrum Disorders: Causal or Confounded?
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“Studies in Western countries have found that exposure to PM air pollution was associated with children's mental health, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a group of serious developmental disorders in children (Becerra et al., 2013; Volk et al., 2013).”
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“Thus, much research has flourished to investigate the role of environmental factors in ASD, including parental [75] and grand paternal age [76], interpregnancy interval [77], maternal infections during pregnancy [78], maternal exposure to air pollution [79,80], and environmental toxicants [81].”
BackgroundInfluentialTemporal trends in air pollution exposure inequality in Massachusetts
Rosofsky, A., Levy, J. I., Zanobetti, A., Janulewicz, P. A., & Fabian, M. P. (2017) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.10.028 · Cited by 125
“…al., 2016), adverse birth outcomes such as early gestational age and low birth weight (Brauer et al., 2008; Stieb et al., 2012; Zheng et al., 2016), increased risk of autism spectrum disorders (Raz et al., 2015; Volk et al., 2013), and all-cause mortality (Franklin et al., 2008; Shi et al., 2016).”
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“These preliminary findings corroborate and extend clinical and experimental evidence for the neurotoxic impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution and other environmental insults, which enhance vulnerability to ASD and other neurodevelopmental problems [13,17,46,47].”
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Exposure to Air Pollution From Traffic and Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Swedish Twins
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“However, these levels are considerably lower than in the study areas of California described above (mean value at 25 ± 7.2 g/m3 in one study and 36.3 ± 6.1 g/m3 in another study; Becerra et al., 2013; Volk et al., 2013).”
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“african american/Black 48 (6) 9,875 (7)”
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“Susceptible trimesters identified by prior studies have not been consistent (Becerra et al. 2013; Jo et al. 2019b; Pagalan et al. 2019; Raz et al. 2015; Talbott et al. 2015; Volk et al. 2013).”
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Gestational Exposures to Phthalates and Folic Acid, and Autistic Traits in Canadian Children
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“…factors, such as exposures to neurotoxic chemicals during early brain development, involved in the etiology of ASD (Becerra et al. 2013; Cheslack-Postava et al. 2013; Landrigan 2010; Lyall et al. 2014b; Miodovnik et al. 2011; Pelch et al. 2019; Volk et al. 2013; von Ehrenstein et al. 2019).”
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“Nitrogen dioxide, particulates, and ozone were found associated with higher odds of being diagnosed with autism among children in California [33,48].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Volk, H. E., Lurmann, F., Penfold, B., Hertz-Picciotto, I., & McConnell, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Corresponding author
- Volk, Heather E.
- Venue
- JAMA Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2013-01-01
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 71
- ISSN
- 2168-622X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4019010
- OpenAlex
- W2095096359
- Cited by
- 638
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 54 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 22
- FWCI
- 27.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- JAMA Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ES011627, R21ES019002, P01ES011627, ES019002, L40 ES020599, ES015359, ES013578, R01ES015359, ES007048, P01ES011269, R01ES016535, ES11269, P30ES007048)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Air Quality and Health Impacts
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Environmental Justice and Health Disparities
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, traffic-related air pollution, particulate matter, PM2.5, PM10, nitrogen dioxide, prenatal exposure, early childhood exposure, residential exposure assessment, air quality, autism etiology, environmental risk factors, hazardous air pollutants
- MeSH terms
- Air Pollution, Autistic Disorder, California, Child, Preschool, Environmental Monitoring, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Nitrogen Dioxide, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Surveys and Questionnaires, Case-Control Studies, Particulate Matter
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