Sustainability of the four generations of biofuels – A review
Abstract
Biofuel has emerged as an alternative source of energy to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and combat global warming. Biofuels are classified into first, second, third and fourth generations. Each of the biofuel generations aims to meet the global energy demand while minimizing environmental impacts. Sustainability is defined as meeting the needs of the current generations without jeopardizing the needs of future generations. The aim of sustainability is to ensure continuous growth of the economy while protecting the environment and societal needs. Thus, this paper aims to evaluate the sustainability of these four generations of biofuels. The objectives are to compare the production of biofuel, the net greenhouse gases emissions, and energy efficiency. This study is important in providing information for the policymakers and researchers in the decision-making for the future development of green energy. Each of the biofuel generations shows different benefits and drawbacks. From this study, we conclude that the first generation biofuel has the highest biofuel production and energy efficiency, but is less effective in meeting the goal of reducing the greenhouse gases emission. The third generation biofuel shows the lowest net greenhouse gases emissions, allowing the reduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. However, the energy required for the processing of the third generation biofuel is higher and, this makes it less environmentally friendly as fossil fuels are used to generate electricity. The third and fourth generation feedstocks are the potential sustainable source for the future production of biofuel. However, more studies need to be done to find an alternative low cost for biofuel production while increasing energy efficiency.
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Bioethanol is a first-generation biofuel derived from agricultural products such as maize, sugarcane, potatoes, and rice.
“Bioethanol is a first-generation biofuel derived from agricultural products such as maize, sugarcane, potatoes, and rice [106].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Global biomass supply has been expanding, with solid biomass accounting for 85% and liquid biofuels growing 2% annually from 2000 to 2018.
“The global biomass supply has been steadily expanding, with solid biomass accounting for 85% and liquid biofuels experiencing a 2% annual growth rate from 2000 to 2018 [41, 106].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
The US and the EU are implementing biotechnology approaches to produce 1.3 billion tons annually without compromising food security.
“The US and the EU are implementing biotechnology approaches to produce 1.3 billion tons annually without compromising food security [106].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Catalytic liquefaction effectively generates products with greater energy density in the liquid phase.
“Catalytic liquefaction, assisted by a catalyst or high hydrogen partial pressure, effectively generates products with greater energy density in the liquid phase [106, 111].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Algal biofuels may be superior replacements for earlier generations due to their faster growth without the need for extensive land or resources.
“Algal biofuels may be superior replacements for earlier generations due to their faster growth without the need for extensive land or resources [106].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Research is exploring the conversion of sugars into diesel-type biofuels using biological or chemical catalysts to produce biofuels with properties similar to petroleum-based diesel.
“Sugar conversion to diesel-type biofuels: another area of research involves the conversion of sugars into diesel-type biofuels using biological or chemical catalysts. This approach aims to produce biofuels with properties similar to petroleum-based diesel.”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks poses a substantial obstacle to biofuel manufacturing.
“The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks poses a substantial obstacle to biofuel manufacturing.”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Competing demands for land, water, and resources from food production, conservation, and biofuel crops can raise concerns about land use change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss.
“Competing demands for land, water, and resources from food production, conservation, and biofuel crops can raise concerns about land use change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss.”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Growing biofuel feedstocks on high-carbon soils, such as peat land, greatly increases GHG emissions.
“Growing biofuel feedstocks on high-carbon soils, such as peat land, greatly increases GHG emissions.”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Unsustainable land use practices, such as deforestation or the modification of natural ecosystems, can cause biodiversity loss and carbon emissions.
“Unsustainable land use practices, such as deforestation or the modification of natural ecosystems, can cause biodiversity loss and carbon emissions [106].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Land use changes can cause soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water consumption, biodiversity loss, and increased GHG emissions.
“Land use changes can have important environmental impacts, such as soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water consumption, and biodiversity loss, as well as increasing GHG emissions [106].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks at acceptable prices is critical to the economic sustainability of biofuels.
“The availability of sustainable and plentiful feedstocks at acceptable prices is critical to the economic sustainability of biofuels.”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Biofuel feedstock cultivation has the potential to have a substantial impact on land and water resources.
“Biofuel feedstock cultivation has the potential to have a substantial impact on land and water resources.”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
Researchers are investigating novel biofuel feedstock options such as algae, camelina, municipal solid waste, and other specialized feedstocks to reduce the environmental impact of biofuel production.
“Researchers are investigating novel biofuel feedstock options, such as algae, camelina, municipal solid waste, and other specialized feedstocks, to help reduce the environmental impact of biofuel production (Mat et al., 2020; [71].”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as Mat et al., 2020
Addressing sustainability issues connected with biofuel production, such as land use changes and water consumption, and optimizing production techniques are critical to reduce environmental effects.
“It is critical to address the sustainability issues connected with biofuel production, such as land use changes and water consumption, as well as optimize production techniques to reduce environmental effects [71, 106]”
From Biofuel production: exploring renewable energy solutions for a greener future (2024) · cites this paper as [106]
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- Authors
- Mat Aron, N. S., Khoo, K. S., Chew, K. W., Show, P. L., Chen, W., & Nguyen, T. H. P.
- Affiliations
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih Malaysia
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- Xiamen University Malaysia (MY)
- Tunghai University (TW)
- Ton Duc Thang University (VN)
- Corresponding author
- Show, Pau Loke
- Nguyen, The Hong Phong
- Venue
- International Journal of Energy Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-06-15
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 9266-9282
- ISSN
- 0363-907X (ISSN-L)
- 1099-114X
- OpenAlex
- W3035574317
- Semantic Scholar
- f3de22b6c9cbd21b8d6683036503ce39e99a3016
- Cited by
- 479
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 60 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 105 · 2023: 83 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 4
- FWCI
- 17.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Energy Research (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Fundamental Research Grant Scheme, Malaysia (FRGS/1/2019/STG05/UNIM/02/2)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biofuel production and bioconversion
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › General Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Bioeconomy and Sustainability Development
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Agronomy and Crop Science › Bioenergy crop production and management
- Keywords
- biofuels, biofuel generations, sustainability assessment, greenhouse gas emissions, energy efficiency, biofuel production, first-generation biofuels, second-generation biofuels, third-generation biofuels, fourth-generation biofuels, feedstock, renewable energy policy
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