Heterogeneity in perinatal depression: how far have we come? A systematic review
Open accessAbstract
Despite perinatal depression (PND) being a common mental disorder affecting pregnant women and new mothers, limited attention has been paid to the heterogeneous nature of this disorder. We examined heterogeneity in PND symptom profiles and symptom trajectories. Literature searches revealed 247 studies, 23 of which were included in the final review. The most common statistical approaches used to explore symptom and trajectory heterogeneity were latent class model and growth mixture model. All but one study examined PND symptom trajectories and provided collective evidence of at least three heterogeneous patterns: low, medium, or chronic-high symptom levels. Social and psychological risk factors were the most common group of predictors related to a higher burden (high sum of score) of depressive symptoms. These studies were consistent in reporting poorer health outcomes for children of mothers assigned to high burden symptom trajectories. Only one study explored heterogeneity in symptom profile and was the only one to describe the specific constellations of depressive symptoms related to the PND heterogeneous patterns identified. Therefore, there is limited evidence on the specific symptoms and symptom configurations that make up PND heterogeneity. We suggest directions for future research to further clarify the PND heterogeneity and its related mechanisms.
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Poorer relationship quality has been linked to maternal depression and anxiety.
“Finally, contextual factors related to the intimate relationship, namely poorer relationship quality and lack of social support, have been linked to maternal depression and anxiety [13, 15, 40], as well as paternal depression [32, 34, 42].”
From Trajectories of Maternal and Paternal Internalizing Symptoms from Pregnancy to 2 Years Postpartum: Identifying Modifiable Risk and Protective Factors (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
The References section (page unavailable) lists a study titled “Close relationships predict curvilinear trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms,” supporting a broad link between relationships and maternal depression. The review does not establish that poorer relationship quality is the relevant direction of that link, or link relationship quality to maternal anxiety. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA history of psychiatric problems is a predictor of maternal perinatal depression and anxiety.
“a history of psychiatric problems (e.g., depression) has consistently been identified as a predictor of maternal perinatal depression and anxiety [13, 15, 37, 38, 40], as well as paternal postpartum depression [34].”
From Trajectories of Maternal and Paternal Internalizing Symptoms from Pregnancy to 2 Years Postpartum: Identifying Modifiable Risk and Protective Factors (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
The Results section, under “Factors related to symptom trajectory membership assignment” (page not supplied), identifies a history of psychopathology as a predictor of higher maternal depressive-symptom trajectories. It also reports that a past history of depressive symptoms was the strongest predictor of a persistently high depressive-symptom trajectory. These passages do not establish that psychiatric history predicts maternal perinatal anxiety. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLack of social support has been linked to maternal depression and anxiety.
“Finally, contextual factors related to the intimate relationship, namely poorer relationship quality and lack of social support, have been linked to maternal depression and anxiety [13, 15, 40], as well as paternal depression [32, 34, 42].”
From Trajectories of Maternal and Paternal Internalizing Symptoms from Pregnancy to 2 Years Postpartum: Identifying Modifiable Risk and Protective Factors (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
The Results section on factors related to symptom trajectories lists social risk factors for maternal depressive symptoms, but does not identify lack of social support or poorer relationship quality among them. The child-outcomes section mentions an association between maternal depression and unspecified social risks; it does not establish the claimed link with maternal depression and anxiety. Searches for social support, partner support, and relationship quality found no decisive passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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- Authors
- Santos, H., Tan, X., & Salomon, R.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Venue
- Archives of Women's Mental Health
- Published
- 2016-10-29
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 11-23
- ISSN
- 1434-1816 (ISSN-L)
- 1435-1102
- PMC
- PMC5507213
- OpenAlex
- W2545237038
- Cited by
- 133
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6
- FWCI
- 1.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Archives of Women s Mental Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- NIH Clinical and Translational Science Award (550KR131619)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Maternal and Neonatal Healthcare
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Keywords
- perinatal depression, heterogeneity, symptom trajectories, symptom profiles, latent class models, growth mixture modeling, risk factors, maternal mental health, child health outcomes, chronic depression
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Depression, Female, Humans, Mothers, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Complications, Puerperal Disorders
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