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Cited by 14Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and PostpartumMaternal and Neonatal HealthcareRacial and Ethnic Identity Research

Material Hardship and Stress from COVID-19 in Immigrant Chinese American Families with Infants

Open access
Duh-Leong, Carol, Yin, H. Shonna, Yi, Stella S., Chen, Sabrina L., Mui, Angel, Perrin, Eliana M., Zhao, Qiuqu, Gross, Rachel S.·2022·Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health
DOI 10.1007/s10903-021-01267-8PMC PMC8422367
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Abstract

Material hardship and stress, associated with poor infant outcomes, increased during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic. Chinese American families were vulnerable to racism-driven disparities. Little is known about maternal perceptions of pandemic impacts on their infants, family, and community. Purposive sampling of low-income Chinese American mothers (n = 25) with infants (1-15 months). Semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted in Mandarin, Cantonese, or English were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated. Transcripts coded using applied thematic analysis in an iterative process of textual analysis until thematic saturation. Three themes emerged: (1) Heightened family hardship included financial strain, disruption of transnational childcare, experiences of racism; (2) Altered infant routines/developmental consequences included using protective equipment on infants, concerns about infant socio-emotional development; (3) Coping strategies included stockpiling essentials, adapting family diets. Strategies to mitigate disparities include expanding social needs screening, correcting misinformation, strengthening support networks, and including low-income Chinese Americans in these efforts.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In qualitative interviews with 25 low-income Chinese American mothers of infants (1–15 months) in Brooklyn during COVID-19, mothers described heightened family hardship, altered infant routines with developmental concerns, and coping strategies. The authors conclude these findings support expanded social needs screening, correcting misinformation, and strengthening support networks during crises.

Key findings

  • Three themes emerged: (1) heightened family hardship included financial strain, disruption of transnational childcare, and experiences of racism; (2) altered infant routines/developmental consequences included using protective equipment on infants and concerns about infant socio-emotional development; (3) coping strategies included stockpiling essentials and adapting family diets.
  • Among 25 mothers, 96% were born in China, 80% preferred interviews in Mandarin, 52% had infants in early infancy (1–7 months) and 48% in later infancy/early toddlerhood (8–15 months), and 32% delivered during the height of the pandemic in New York City (March–May 2020).
  • Forty percent of mothers mentioned unemployment impacting themselves or a partner, predominantly in the restaurant industry; specific hardships included job loss, fluctuating prices (e.g., masks costing $40–$50 then back to $4–$5), delayed US-China childcare/reunification, and racism such as inspectors zipping uniforms and covering faces or people standing in a long line rather than behind them.
  • Coping included stockpiling diapers, switching from liquid to powdered milk, using video calls to maintain social support, and staying positive.

Methods

  • Qualitative study of mother-infant pairs at a federally qualified health center in Brooklyn, New York (Sunset Park); purposive sampling from the HealthySteps program recruited 25 mothers ≥18 years, of Chinese descent, able to speak Mandarin, Cantonese, or English, with a child aged 1–15 months. Interviews were conducted remotely between June 2020 and September 2020, lasted 25–37 minutes, and participants received a $20 gift card.
  • Semi-structured interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and translated, then coded using applied thematic analysis with iterative codebook development, consensus coding, and thematic saturation; Dedoose version 8.3.35 facilitated data organization and stratification by child age.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: sampling and generalizability were limited because remote interviews required smartphone access and sufficient general/digital literacy to complete electronic consent, excluding the most marginalized families; findings describe experiences specific to Chinese American populations.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was small (n = 25) and from a single Brooklyn clinic/neighborhood, only mothers were interviewed, and the one-time interviews captured a specific early COVID-19 period, limiting transferability and causal inference.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s10903-021-01267-8

Cites

33 of 33 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

14 of 35 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Chinese American families were vulnerable to racism-driven disparities.

    “Chinese American families were vulnerable to racism-driven disparities.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “During the first eleven months of the pandemic, there were over 3,700 reports of discrimination targeting Asian Americans in the United States (US) [11], as well as increased calls for research to document potential racism [12, 13].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [11] Stop AAPI Hate National Report [Internet]. Asian pacific policy and planning council; 2020 [cited 2020 Oct 22]. Available from: http://www.asianpacificpolicyandplanningcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/STOP_AAPI_Hate_National_Report_3.19-8.5.2020.pdf.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [12] Gee GC, Ro MJ, Rimoin AW. seven reasons to care about racism and COVID-19 and seven things to do to stop it. Am J Public Health. 2020;110(7):954–5. source

      In “Why Should We Care About Racism?” (page unavailable), the paper describes anti-Chinese racism and explains how discrimination can harm health and impede treatment. It does not specifically discuss Chinese American families or disparities measured among them, so the family-specific claim goes beyond the source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [13] Earnshaw VA, Katz IT. Educate, amplify, and focus to address COVID-19 misinformation. JAMA Health Forum. 2020;1(4):e200460. source

      The main text (page not specified) notes reports of COVID-19-related discrimination, including racism toward Asian Americans. It does not specifically discuss Chinese American families or establish racism-driven disparities for them. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [14] Tessler H, Choi M, Kao G. The anxiety of being Asian American: hate crimes and negative biases during the COVID-19 pandemic. Am J Crim Just. 2020;45(4):636–46. source

      The Introduction and “Fear and the Mental Health of Asian Americans” describe racism, discrimination, and vulnerability to attack among Asian Americans during COVID-19. The paper does not specifically establish disparities experienced by Chinese American families; its discussion is principally about Asian Americans more broadly. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [15] Freytas-Tamura K de, Singer JE. A disastrous year for Brooklyn’s Chinatown: ‘it’s just so hard.’ The New York Times [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Apr 28]; Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/13/nyregion/brooklyn-sunset-park-covid.html.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Little is known about how families with infants from this understudied population experienced targeted impacts of the pandemic.

    “Despite research highlighting challenges for families and data suggesting that Chinese American communities reliant on immigrant-owned small businesses for subsistence may be vulnerable, little is known about how families with infants from this understudied population [16] experienced targeted impacts of the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Yi SS. taking action to improve Asian American health. Am J Public Health. 2020;110(4):435–7. source
  • Premisecitation

    Low-income Chinese American families quickly contended with specific damage to Chinatown-based small business economies.

    “In addition to stress from direct discrimination, low-income Chinese American families quickly contended with specific damage to Chinatown-based small business economies [14, 15].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14] Tessler H, Choi M, Kao G. The anxiety of being Asian American: hate crimes and negative biases during the COVID-19 pandemic. Am J Crim Just. 2020;45(4):636–46. source

      In “The Color Line and the Positionality of Asian Americans” (page unavailable), the paper reports that restaurants and businesses in New York City’s Chinatown suffered immediate profit losses after the first COVID-19 reports. It does not identify the affected businesses as belonging to low-income Chinese American families or establish that those families bore the losses. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [15] Freytas-Tamura K de, Singer JE. A disastrous year for Brooklyn’s Chinatown: ‘it’s just so hard.’ The New York Times [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Apr 28]; Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/13/nyregion/brooklyn-sunset-park-covid.html.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Prior evidence has shown that household-level food insecurity does not correlate with child-level food insecurity.

    “Finally, prior evidence has shown that household-level food insecurity does not correlate with child-level food insecurity [36].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Hanson KL, Connor LM. Food insecurity and dietary quality in US adults and children: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(2):684–92. source

      The Discussion reports poor agreement between adult and adolescent reports of the adolescent’s own food security, not a lack of correlation between household-level and child-level food insecurity. The Results distinguish household and child measures but do not report their correlation. Searches for that relationship found no passage addressing it. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Coping strategies included stockpiling essentials.

    “Coping strategies included stockpiling essentials, adapting family diets.”
    • Also stated in: § Qualitative Analysis · plain
      “Stockpiling baby essentials”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 17
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 31
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Psychosocial stress in parents, including depressive or anxious symptoms, is associated with infant developmental delay and poor nutritional outcomes.

    “Psychosocial stress in parents, including depressive or anxious symptoms, is also associated with infant developmental delay [5] and poor nutritional outcomes [8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [5] Molfese VJ, Rudasill KM, Beswick JL, Jacobi-Vessels JL, Ferguson MC, White JM. Infant temperament, maternal personality, and parenting stress as contributors to infant developmental outcomes. Merrill Palmer Q. 2010;56(1):49–79. source

      The Summary of Results reports that greater maternal stress was linked to lower infant cognitive scores at 12 months, supporting the developmental-outcome portion of the claim. The paper does not establish that depressive or anxious symptoms specifically are associated with infant developmental delay. The nutritional-outcome portion is attributed to citation [8], not this source. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [8] Rahman A, Iqbal Z, Bunn J, Lovel H, Harrington R. Impact of maternal depression on infant nutritional status and illness: a cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(9):946. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Almost a third (32%) of mothers delivered their baby during the height of the pandemic in New York City (March-May 2020).

    “Almost a third (32%) of mothers delivered their baby during the height of the pandemic in New York City (March–May 2020 [23]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Faust JS, Lin Z, del Rio C. Comparison of estimated excess deaths in new York City during the COVID-19 and 1918 influenza pandemics. JAMA Netw Open [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 Oct 22];3(8). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7426746/. source

      The Methods section (page unavailable) studies the New York City COVID-19 outbreak from March 11 to May 11, 2020, supporting the date and location attached to the citation. The paper calls this the outbreak’s “early period,” not its height, and does not report the percentage of mothers who delivered during it. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Material hardships are associated with poor outcomes in key infant domains such as cognitive development, obesogenic feeding behaviors, and decreased sleep duration.

    “Previous studies have identified associations between material hardships, or a lack of essential resources, and poor outcomes in key infant domains such as cognitive development [5], obesogenic feeding behaviors [6], and decreased sleep duration [7].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [5] Molfese VJ, Rudasill KM, Beswick JL, Jacobi-Vessels JL, Ferguson MC, White JM. Infant temperament, maternal personality, and parenting stress as contributors to infant developmental outcomes. Merrill Palmer Q. 2010;56(1):49–79. source

      Citation [5] is attached to cognitive development, not the feeding or sleep outcomes. The Discussion reports an association between maternal parenting stress and lower infant cognitive scores at 12 months, but neither it nor the passages found by searching for material hardship, poverty, and resource deprivation establish an association between lack of essential resources and infant cognitive development. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [6] Gross RS, Mendelsohn AL, Fierman AH, Racine AD, Messito MJ. Food insecurity and obesogenic maternal infant feeding styles and practices in low-income families. Pediatrics. 2012;130(2):254–61. source
    • cites [7] Duh-Leong C, Messito MJ, Katzow MW, Tomopoulos S, Nagpal N, Fierman AH, et al. Material hardships and infant and toddler sleep duration in low-income hispanic families. Academic Pediatrics [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 Jul 9]; Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876285920304228. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Material hardship and stress, associated with poor infant outcomes, increased during the COVID-19 pandemic.

    “Material hardship and stress, associated with poor infant outcomes, increased during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “The economic and societal consequences of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic led to material hardship [1] and increased psychosocial stress [2, 3] for families with children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] Fields J, Hunter-Childs J, Tersine A, Sison J, Parker E, Velkoff V, et al. Measuring household experiences during the coronavirus pandemic [Internet]. US Census Bureau; [cited 2020 Sep 29]. (Design and Operation of the 2020 Household Pulse Survey, 2020). Available from: https://www.census.gov/householdpulsedata.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [2] Gassman-Pines A, Ananat EO, Fitz-Henley J. COVID-19 and parent-child psychological well-being. pediatrics [Internet]. 2020 Sep 1 [cited 2020 Sep 18]; Available from: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2020/08/31/peds.2020-007294. source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) says psychological distress and family hardships increased during the COVID-19 crisis, and the associations section links hardships to worse parent and child well-being. But the study sampled families with children aged 2–7; it does not establish an association with poor infant outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [3] Brown SM, Doom JR, Lechuga-Peña S, Watamura SE, Koppels T. Stress and parenting during the global COVID-19 pandemic. Child Abus Negl. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104699. source

      The Results (Experiences regarding COVID-19; page unavailable) report parents’ accounts of lost income, difficulty providing for their families, and increased stress during the pandemic. The paper does not establish an increase relative to before the pandemic or link these hardships and stressors to poor infant outcomes; its reported outcomes concern parenting stress and child abuse potential. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Infancy represents a critical period of cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral development with lifelong consequences.

    “Infancy represents a critical period of cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral development with lifelong consequences [4].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Cusick SE, Georgieff MK. The role of nutrition in brain development: the golden opportunity of the “first 1000 days.” J Pediatr. 2016;1(175):16–21. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Current literature from the pandemic has found that the ability to pay for fresh food is associated with higher incomes.

    “Current literature from the pandemic has found that the ability to pay for fresh food is associated with higher incomes [35].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Wang E, An N, Gao Z, Kiprop E, Geng X. Consumer food stockpiling behavior and willingness to pay for food reserves in COVID-19. Food Secur. 2020;12(4):739–47. source

      The Results (Table 2; page unavailable) show a positive association between the highest income category and willingness to pay for fresh-food reserves during COVID-19. The Methodology describes this as a hypothetical price-choice survey for a package of reserves, not a measure of consumers’ actual ability to pay for fresh food generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The majority of mothers were first generation immigrants born in China (96%).

    “We interviewed 25 mothers who were primarily first generation immigrants born in China (96%) and preferred interviews in Mandarin (80%; Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    48% of infants were in later infancy/early toddlerhood (8-15 months).

    “About half (52%) of infants were in early infancy (1–7 months) and 48% in later infancy/early toddlerhood (8–15 months).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Mothers reported loss of child care support due to disrupted transnational child care plans.

    “Loss of child care support”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    52% of infants were in early infancy (1-7 months).

    “About half (52%) of infants were in early infancy (1–7 months) and 48% in later infancy/early toddlerhood (8–15 months).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The most common parent job descriptions were restaurant worker, manicurist, or home health aide.

    “The most common parent job descriptions were restaurant worker (e.g. cashier, food delivery person, server), manicurist, or home health aide.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    80% of mothers preferred interviews in Mandarin.

    “We interviewed 25 mothers who were primarily first generation immigrants born in China (96%) and preferred interviews in Mandarin (80%; Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The consequences of protective measures triggered increased stress and feelings of loss.

    “The consequences of these protective measures triggered increased stress and feelings of loss.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Some mothers expressed increased uncertainty due to inconsistent COVID-19 information.

    “Some mothers expressed increased uncertainty.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    The language captured in interviews emphasized the high level of stress families experienced.

    “The language captured in our interviews emphasized the high level of stress families experienced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    The study's findings describe the consequences of infant care adjustments.

    “In our second theme around COVID-19 protective measures on daily infant parenting, our findings describe the consequences of these infant care adjustments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mothers made efforts to feel gratitude and maintain positive thoughts.

    “Mothers also made efforts to feel gratitude (Q23) and maintain positive thoughts, with one stating: “I’m having a hard time finding a job… but it is what it is. There is no difficulty, which we cannot come over. Life goes on, anyway.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Economic recession impacted the families through job loss and fluctuating prices of everyday goods.

    “Economic recession impacted families through job loss (Q1, Q2) and fluctuating prices of everyday goods (Q3, Q4)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mothers of younger infants described the emotional burdens of home confinement on themselves, and mothers of older infants worried about how social distancing might stunt the infant's development.

    “Mothers of younger infants described the emotional burdens of home confinement on themselves, and mothers of older infants worried about how social distancing might stunt the infant’s development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mothers mentioned older infants refusing masks, and some mothers purchased small hats with face shields and kept backup cleaning methods such as hand wipes.

    “Mothers mentioned older infants refusing masks, and some mothers purchased small hats with face shields and kept backup cleaning methods such as hand wipes (Q12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Due to COVID-19 travel restrictions, families were delayed in bringing infants to China and subsequently delayed in obtaining employment.

    “Due to COVID-19 travel restrictions, families noted being delayed in bringing infants to China and subsequently delayed in obtaining employment (Q5, Q6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The study's findings reinforce quantitative evidence, with descriptions of how families avoided fresh vegetables with a shorter shelf life and switched from liquid to powdered milk.

    “Our findings reinforce this quantitative evidence, with descriptions of how families avoided fresh vegetables with a shorter shelf life and switched from liquid to powdered milk.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    To cope with material hardship and manage resource scarcity, families stockpiled infant essentials, adapted family diets, and prioritized infant's dietary needs.

    “To cope with material hardship and to manage resource scarcity, families stockpiled infant essentials, adapted family diets, and prioritized infant’s dietary needs, “we can just eat whatever food, it’s okay.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Another mother worried that social isolation would stunt a baby's ability to interact with others, making them solitary.

    “Another mother worried that the social isolation would stunt a baby’s “ability to interact with others, making them solitary” (Q16, 17).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Families stocked powdered milk over liquid due to its longer shelf life.

    “Families also stocked powdered milk over liquid due to its longer shelf life (Q19)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Interviews were conducted until thematic saturation was reached.

    “Interviews were conducted until thematic saturation was reached.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Interviews were independently coded by four team members.

    “Interviews were independently coded by four team members using textual analysis, prioritizing in vivo, versus, and process coding.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Economic and societal COVID-19 impacts, such as unemployment and mistrust of public information, have compounded inequalities in resource and information access and exacerbated poverty-related social determinants of health.

    “Economic and societal COVID-19 impacts, such as unemployment and mistrust of public information, have compounded inequalities in resource and information access and exacerbated poverty-related social determinants of health [9, 10].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [9] Shah GH, Shankar P, Schwind JS, Sittaramane V. The detrimental impact of the COVID-19 crisis on health equity and social determinants of health. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2020;26(4):317–9. source
    • cites [10] Katzow MW, Steinway C, Jan S. Telemedicine and health disparities during COVID-19. Pediatrics [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 Sep 18];146(2). Available from: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/146/2/e20201586. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Consensus was reached on consistency, coherence, and distinctiveness before finalizing the codebook.

    “Consensus was reached on consistency, coherence, and distinctiveness before finalizing the codebook.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The audio recordings were first transcribed and proofread verbatim in the source language, then translated and proofread by another professional interpreter.

    “The audio recordings were first transcribed and proofread verbatim in the source language, then translated and proofread by another professional interpreter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Findings were presented semi-monthly to the HealthySteps team and clinic providers to test credibility and potential research bias.

    “Findings were presented semi-monthly to the HealthySteps team and clinic providers to test credibility and potential research bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Transcripts were reviewed by the interviewer to safeguard translation accuracy and semantic/conceptual equivalence.

    “This transcript was then reviewed by the interviewer (AM/SC) to safeguard translation accuracy and semantic/conceptual equivalence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    During the first eleven months of the pandemic, there were over 3,700 reports of discrimination targeting Asian Americans in the United States.

    “During the first eleven months of the pandemic, there were over 3,700 reports of discrimination targeting Asian Americans in the United States (US) [11]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Stop AAPI Hate National Report [Internet]. Asian pacific policy and planning council; 2020 [cited 2020 Oct 22]. Available from: http://www.asianpacificpolicyandplanningcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/STOP_AAPI_Hate_National_Report_3.19-8.5.2020.pdf.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The clinic is in Sunset Park, a neighborhood considered Brooklyn's Chinatown, with a large population of working-class immigrants from China's Fujian province.

    “The clinic is in Sunset Park, a neighborhood considered Brooklyn’s Chinatown, with a large population of working-class immigrants from China’s Fujian province [17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Hum T. Making a global immigrant neighborhood: Brooklyn’s sunset Park. Philadelphia: Temple University Press; 2014. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The interview guide was informed by validated instruments: COVID-19 Exposure and Family Impact Survey, Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Scale, Food Security Module, and Everyday Discrimination Scale.

    “Interview questions were informed by the COVID-19 Exposure and Family Impact Survey [19], Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Scale [20], Food Security Module from the US Department of Agriculture [21], and Everyday Discrimination Scale [22].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [19] Kazak A, Canter K, Phan-Vo T-L, McDonnell G, Hildenbrand A, Alderfer M, et al. COVID-19 exposure and family impact survey (CEFIS) [Internet]. The Center for Pediatric Traumatic Stress; [cited 2020 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.nlm.nih.gov/dr2/CEFIS_COVID_questionnaire_English_42220_final.pdf. source
    • cites [20] Sherbourne CD, Stewart AL. The MOS social support survey. Soc Sci Med. 1991;32(6):705–14. source
    • cites [21] U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module [Internet]. SNAP Education Connection. [cited 2019 Nov 17]. Available from: https://snaped.fns.usda.gov/library/materials/us-household-food-security-survey-module.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Debriefs were conducted after every other interview to inform iterative changes in the interview guide and allow emergent concepts to be tested with future participants.

    “Debriefs were conducted after every other interview to inform iterative changes in the interview guide, to allow emergent concepts to be tested with future participants, and for interviewers to reflect on and develop facilitation skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Subsequent interviews were coded by 2 team members who met to discuss codes and resolve disagreements with 2 arbitrators.

    “Subsequent interviews were coded by 2 team members (CDL and SC) who met to discuss codes and resolve disagreements with 2 arbitrators (RG and SY).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Purposive sampling was used to obtain maximum variation across parenting experiences in early and late infancy.

    “We purposively sampled mothers in the HealthySteps program [18] (universally offered at this clinic), to obtain maximum variation across parenting experiences in early (1–7 months) and late infancy/early toddlerhood (8–15 months).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] What is healthy steps? [Internet]. Zero to Three; 2018 [cited 2020 Oct 21]. Available from: https://www.healthysteps.org/article/what-is-healthysteps-11.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lower-income respondents are more likely to know the exact cost of small items due to the heavy consequence of each dollar spent.

    “Mothers used specific dollar prices of household items when describing their pandemic experiences, extending prior evidence that lower-income respondents are more likely to know the exact cost of small items due to the heavy consequence of each dollar spent [24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Mullainathan S, Shafir E. Scarcity: why having too little means so much. New York City: Times Books; 2013. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous evidence has shown that low-income Hispanic immigrant families cope with food insecurity by prioritizing basics.

    “Previous evidence has shown that low-income Hispanic immigrant families cope with food insecurity by prioritizing basics [34].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Gross RS, Mendelsohn AL, Arana MM, Messito MJ. Food insecurity during pregnancy and breastfeeding by low-income Hispanic mothers. Pediatrics [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2020 Sep 19];143(6). Available from: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/143/6/e20184113. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Both interviewers have written and spoken native fluency in Mandarin and English while one had additional native fluency in Cantonese.

    “Both interviewers have written and spoken native fluency in Mandarin and English while one (AM) had additional native fluency in Cantonese.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Prior articles have described personal protective equipment in health care settings.

    “While prior articles have described personal protective equipment in health care settings [32], none to our knowledge describe personal protective equipment as part of infant daily routines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Livingston E, Desai A, Berkwits M. Sourcing personal protective equipment during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA. 2020;323(19):1912–4. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Due to social distancing guidelines, interviews were limited to mothers with smart phone access and sufficient literacy (both general and digital) to complete electronic consent, excluding the most marginalized families.

    “Due to social distancing guidelines, our interviews were limited to mothers with smart phone access and sufficient literacy (both general and digital) to complete electronic consent, excluding the most marginalized families.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    National guidelines discourage face masks in children under 2 years old.

    “While national guidelines discourage face masks in children under 2 years old [31], mothers discussed attempts to protect infants from COVID-19 exposure, describing creative methods such as hats with face shield attachments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] How to Wear Masks [Internet]. Center for Disease Control; 2020 Sep [cited 2020 Oct 15]. (Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)). Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/how-to-wear-cloth-face-coverings.html.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Prior evidence has emphasized the value of tactile bonding for parent-child interaction.

    “Prior evidence has emphasized the value of tactile bonding for parent–child interaction [33], and pediatric primary care can facilitate evidence-based planning to prioritize family cohesion when parent separation is necessary for infection prevention.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Mercuri M, Stack DM, Trojan S, Giusti L, Morandi F, Mantis I, et al. Mothers’ and fathers’ early tactile contact behaviors during triadic and dyadic parent-infant interactions immediately after birth and at 3-months postpartum: Implications for early care behaviors and intervention. Infant Behav Dev. 2019;57:101347. source
45 of 45

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This population is rarely researched.

    “call attention to a particularly stressed population during this pandemic, one that is rarely researched.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This is the first study to show that the pandemic has delayed both separation and reunification for these families.

    “This is the first study to our knowledge to show that the pandemic has delayed both separation and reunification for these families, signaling needs for increased childcare, developmental, and mental health support [25] for children separated from their parents longer than anticipated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    None to our knowledge describe personal protective equipment as part of infant daily routines.

    “While prior articles have described personal protective equipment in health care settings [32], none to our knowledge describe personal protective equipment as part of infant daily routines.”
3 of 3

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Authors
Duh-Leong, C., Yin, H. S., Yi, S. S., Chen, S. L., Mui, A., Perrin, E. M., Zhao, Q., & Gross, R. S.
Affiliations
  • New York University (US)
  • Johns Hopkins University (US)
Corresponding author
  • Yin, H. Shonna
  • Yi, Stella S.
  • Chen, Sabrina L.
  • Mui, Angel
  • Perrin, Eliana M.
  • Gross, Rachel S.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2021-09-07
Volume
24
Issue
1
Pages
48-57
ISSN
  • 1557-1912 (ISSN-L)
  • 1557-1920
DOI
10.1007/s10903-021-01267-8
PMC
PMC8422367
OpenAlex
W3198508085
Cited by
14
References
33
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1
FWCI
1.56
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Academic Pediatric Association (Young Investigator Award)
  • Center for the Study of Asian American Health at NYU Langone (Pilot Grant)
  • Health Resources and Services Administration (T32HP22238)
  • Clinical and Translational Science Institute, New York University (NCATS 1UL 1TR001445)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Maternal and Neonatal Healthcare
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Keywords
COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese American families, immigrant families, material hardship, family stress, low-income mothers, infants, financial stress
MeSH terms
COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Asian, Female, Humans, Infant, Mothers, Emigrants and Immigrants

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

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