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Cited by 27Early Childhood Education and DevelopmentDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyChild and Animal Learning Development

Longitudinal associations between executive functions and metacognitive monitoring in 5- to 8-year-olds

Open access
Kälin, Sonja, Roebers, Claudia M.·2022·Metacognition and Learning
DOI 10.1007/s11409-022-09306-x
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Abstract

Pronounced developmental progression during the transition to formal schooling can be found in executive functions (EF) and metacognition (MC). However, it is still unclear whether and how EF and MC influence each other during this transition. Previous research with young children suggests that inhibition may be a prerequisite for monitoring skills. Thus, the present longitudinal study investigated the association between the common subcomponents of EF (inhibition, working memory, and shifting) assessed in kindergarten (T1) and metacognitive monitoring assessed in 2nd grade (T2) in a sample of N = 84 children. In line with our hypothesis, the results revealed a significant link only between the EF subcomponent inhibition and later metacognitive monitoring. More precisely, children with better inhibition skills in kindergarten showed less overconfident monitoring in elementary school. Interestingly, the longitudinal relationship between inhibition and monitoring was not bidirectional. The findings indicate an essential role of early inhibition skills regarding emerging and developing elementary school children’s monitoring skills.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a longitudinal sample of 84 Swiss children, early inhibition in kindergarten predicted less overconfident metacognitive monitoring in 2nd grade, whereas working memory and shifting did not. The inhibition–monitoring link was not bidirectional: earlier monitoring did not predict later inhibition.

Key findings

  • Inhibition at T1 significantly predicted monitoring at T2, explaining 11% of variance (final model β = −0.30, p < .01; model R² = 0.13); working memory and shifting added only 1% additional variance and were not significant predictors.
  • In the cross-lagged panel model, T1 inhibition significantly predicted T2 monitoring (β = −0.35, p < .01), but T1 monitoring did not predict T2 inhibition; inhibition showed high stability (β = 0.52, p < .001), while monitoring stability was low (β = −0.04, n.s.).
  • Children were significantly overconfident at both T1, T(83) = 7.91, p < .001, d = 0.86, and T2, T(83) = 4.52, p < .001, d = 0.49, but became less overconfident from T1 to T2, F(1,83) = 14.4, p < .001, ηp² = 0.148.
  • Paired-associate performance accuracy improved from 0.39 (SD = 0.22) at T1 to 0.59 (SD = 0.21) at T2, T(83) = −7.27, p < .001, d = −0.79.

Methods

  • Longitudinal design with N = 84 children (49% female) assessed in kindergarten at T1 (M = 73.3 months, SD = 4.72) and in 2nd grade at T2 (M = 94.6 months, SD = 4.30); delay ranged from 17 to 24 months (M = 21.2, SD = 2.56).
  • EF at T1 included inhibition (computerized Fruit Stroop), working memory (backward color span), and shifting (modified Dimensional Change Card Sort); inhibition was also assessed at T2. Metacognitive monitoring was measured with a paired-associates task and confidence judgments, quantified as a bias index.
  • Analyses included hierarchical regression predicting T2 monitoring from T1 EF components and a cross-lagged panel model examining bidirectional inhibition–monitoring links, using Jamovi 1.6 and IBM SPSS Amos 25.

Limitations

  • The paper states that shifting and working memory were assessed only at T1, limiting conclusions about their longitudinal relations with monitoring at school age, and that a direct effect of inhibition on monitoring—independent of taking time—cannot be ruled out.
  • The sample was small (N = 84), drawn from nine public kindergartens and schools in German-speaking Switzerland, predominantly Caucasian and lower- to upper-middle class, with a 14% dropout among children invited at T2; generalizability is therefore limited.
  • Evident from the text: the final cross-lagged path model was saturated with 0 degrees of freedom, so model fit could not be tested, and monitoring accuracy showed low stability from T1 to T2.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s11409-022-09306-x

Cites

56 of 56 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

2 of 47 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    An experimental intervention study using reflection training found that children receiving the reflection training substantially improved their EF skills compared to control groups.

    “Compared to the control groups, children receiving the reflection training substantially improved their EF skills (Espinet et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Espinet et al., 2013 source
  • Findingown data
    § Bidirectional links between inhibition and monitoring

    The cross-sectional link between inhibition and monitoring at T2 was not significant (β = 0.06, n.s.).

    “In contrast, the cross-sectional link between inhibition and monitoring at T2 was not significant (β = 0.06, n.s.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Discussion

    Substantial stability could not be confirmed for monitoring.

    “While our results revealed stability in inhibition, substantial stability could not be confirmed for monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Discussion

    Children remained significantly overconfident in elementary school.

    “although children remained significantly overconfident in elementary school, they showed substantial improvements in their monitoring accuracy compared to kindergarten.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Earlier executive functions predicting monitoring

    Inhibition at T1 significantly predicted monitoring at T2, explaining 11% of variance.

    “Inhibition proved to be a significant predictor of monitoring, explaining 11% of variance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 29
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Discussion

    Children became more accurate and faster in their inhibition responses from kindergarten to 2nd grade.

    “Regarding inhibition, children became more accurate and faster in their responses from kindergarten to 2nd grade, confirming previous research (e.g., Davidson et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Davidson et al., 2006 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Correlations between executive functions and monitoring

    There were significant correlations among all executive function components, cross-sectionally as well as longitudinally.

    “There were significant correlations among all EF components, cross-sectionally as well as longitudinally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Development from T1 to T2

    Inhibition accuracy improved significantly and reaction times reduced significantly from T1 to T2.

    “A repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant improvement in accuracy, F(1,83) = 73.5, p < .001,η p ² = 0.470, as well as a significant reduction in reaction times, F(1,83) = 96.8,p < .001,η p ² = 0.538, from T1 to T2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Development from T1 to T2

    Mean accuracy in the inhibition measure was 0.75 (SD = 0.19) at T1 and 0.92 (SD = 0.08) at T2.

    “Regarding the EF measure inhibition, mean accuracy was 0.75 (SD = 0.19) at T1 and 0.92 (SD = 0.08) at T2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § Descriptive statistics

    Performance accuracy in the paired-associate task improved significantly from T1 to T2.

    “A paired t-test (two-sided) revealed a significant improvement over time, T(83) = -7.27,p < .001,Cohen's d = -0.79.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Descriptive statistics

    Mean performance accuracy in the paired-associate task was 0.39 (SD = 0.22) at T1 and 0.59 (SD = 0.21) at T2.

    “Mean performance accuracy in the paired-associate task was 0.39 (SD = 0.22) at T1 and 0.59 (SD = 0.21) at T2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Development from T1 to T2

    Mean reaction time in the inhibition measure was 1558 ms (SD = 562) at T1 and 1024 ms (SD = 309) at T2.

    “The mean reaction time was 1558 ms (SD = 562) at T1 and 1024 ms (SD = 309) at T2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Earlier executive functions predicting monitoring

    Working memory and shifting were no significant predictors of monitoring at T2, only explaining 1% additional variance after accounting for inhibition.

    “In contrast, working memory and shifting were no significant predictors, only explaining 1% additional variance after accounting for inhibition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Discussion

    Working memory and shifting, assessed in kindergarten, were not significantly associated with later monitoring skills.

    “The two other EF subcomponents working memory and shifting, assessed in kindergarten, were not significantly associated with later monitoring skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    The authors interpreted their findings in that EF development is partly driven by increased monitoring skills.

    “The authors interpreted their findings in that EF development is partly driven by increased monitoring skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chevalier & Blaye (2016) source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    The iterative reprocessing model of EF skills assumes that EF development depends, at least in parts, on cognitive and neural processes associated with the reflection abilities of children.

    “For example, the iterative reprocessing model of EF skills assumes that EF development depends, at least in parts, on cognitive and neural processes associated with the reflection abilities of children (Zelazo, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zelazo, 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Discussion

    In the present study, better inhibition skills in kindergarten might have led to a down-regulation of ACC activation and enabled children to take their time to monitor more thoroughly, which subsequently led to less overconfidence in their monitoring not only cross-sectionally but also over almost two years, indicating that it might have affected the development of more realistic monitoring jud

    “Thus, in the present study, better inhibition skills in kindergarten might have led to a down-regulation of ACC activation and enabled children to take their time to monitor more thoroughly, which subsequently led to less overconfidence in their monitoring not only cross-sectionally but also over almost two years, indicating that it might have affected the development of more realistic monitoring”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Better inhibition skills allow children to take their time when monitoring, especially when uncertain, and monitoring needs time.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Bidirectional links between inhibition and monitoring

    The final estimated path model was saturated, meaning there were 0 degrees of freedom, and its fit to the data cannot be tested.

    “The final estimated path model was saturated, meaning that there were 0 degrees of freedom, and its fit to the data cannot be tested.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Monitoring processes need time, as information is looped through the anterior cingulate cortex to be evaluated.

    “Crucially, monitoring processes are known to need time (Fleming & Dolan, 2012) as information is looped through the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) to be evaluated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fleming & Dolan, 2012 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Previous research with young children suggests that inhibition may be a prerequisite for monitoring skills.

    “Previous research with young children suggests that inhibition may be a prerequisite for monitoring skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bryce et al., 2015 source
    • cites Kälin & Roebers, 2020 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Previous research provided correlational evidence that inhibition might serve as a prerequisite of monitoring skills in young children.

    “Previous research provided correlational evidence that inhibition might serve as a prerequisite of monitoring skills in young children (Bryce et al., 2015;Kälin & Roebers, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bryce et al., 2015 source
    • cites Kälin & Roebers, 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Developmentally distinct patterns of interactions between EF and MC have been found regarding the link between working memory and metacognitive skills.

    “Furthermore, developmentally distinct patterns of interactions between EF and MC have also been found regarding the link between working memory and metacognitive skills (Whitebread, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Whitebread, 1999 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Statistical analyses

    Assumption checks were performed before analyzing the data and no violation of assumptions was found.

    “Assumption checks were performed before analyzing the data.No violation of assumptions was found (Shapiro Wilk W = 0.982, p = .30;Multicollinearity VIF < 2; Durbin-Watson = 2.34).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Without inhibition, children would impulsively give a confidence judgment without properly collecting and evaluating evidence.

    “Without inhibition, children would impulsively give a CJ without properly collecting and evaluating evidence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: To be able to take time when monitoring, children need inhibition.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    In 6-year-old children, neither global monitoring nor over- and underestimation of performance was significantly linked to executive functions.

    “In the study of Destan & Roebers (2015), neither global monitoring nor the over-and underestimation of children's performance was significantly linked to EF in 6-years-old children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Destan & Roebers (2015) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Previous studies show that early inhibition skills were predictive for later inhibition skills in preschool and elementary school children, but finding low stability of monitoring accuracy.

    “This is in line with previous studies showing that early inhibition skills were predictive for later inhibition skills in preschool (Carlson et al., 2004) and elementary school children (Harms et al., 2014), but finding low stability of monitoring accuracy (Steiner et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Carlson et al., 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Harms et al., 2014 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites Steiner et al., 2020 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Prefrontal cortical networks are involved in resolving conflicts and down-regulate ACC activation.

    “The neuroscientific background of this assumption is based on findings that prefrontal cortical networks are involved in resolving conflicts and down-regulate ACC activation (Botvinick et al., 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Botvinick et al., 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Both executive functions and metacognition are higher-order cognitive processes and can be linked to similar prefrontal brain regions.

    “Both constructs are higher-order cognitive processes and can be linked to similar prefrontal brain regions (Fleming & Dolan, 2012;Moriguchi & Hiraki, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Fleming & Dolan, 2012 source
    • cites Moriguchi & Hiraki, 2013 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Discussion

    EF's importance for young children's emerging and developing monitoring skills is emphasized, but not vice versa.

    “This emphasizes EF's importance for young children's emerging and developing monitoring skills, but not vice versa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Participants

    Of all children asked to participate at T2 (N = 98), there was a 14% dropout rate.

    “Of all children asked to participate at T2 (N = 98), there was a 14% dropout rate because children either did not get their parents' consent at T2 (N = 11) or moved out of the study's reach (N = 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    In children aged 3-5 years, there is no significant association between procedural metacognition and executive functions.

    “Similarly, Marulis & Nelson (2021) found no significant association between procedural MC and EF in children aged 3-5 years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marulis & Nelson (2021) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Based on the significant association between inhibition and time-based monitoring measures, Kälin & Roebers (2020) suggested that better inhibition skills may help children hesitate when providing monitoring judgments and thus enable children to engage in more thorough monitoring.

    “Based on the significant association between inhibition and time-based monitoring measures, Kälin & Roebers (2020) suggested that better inhibition skills may help children hesitate when providing monitoring judgments and thus enable children to engage in more thorough monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kälin & Roebers (2020) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    There seems to be a link between EF skills and the recruitment of the lateral PFC, with better EF skills being associated with reflection, slower responding and a down-regulation of ACC activation.

    “Crucially, there seems to be a link between EF skills and the recruitment of the lateral PFC, with better EF skills being associated with reflection, slower responding and a down-regulation of ACC activation (Espinet et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Espinet et al., 2013 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    In a longitudinal study with elementary school children, Roebers et al. (2012) found no significant link between inhibition and monitoring, and EF as a latent variable was not substantially associated with later monitoring judgments.

    “in their longitudinal study with elementary school children, Roebers et al., (2012) found no significant link between inhibition and monitoring, and EF as a latent variable was not substantially associated with later monitoring judgments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Roebers et al., 2012 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Inhibitory control, but not working memory, is significantly correlated with the rate of metacognitive monitoring behavior in 5- and 7-year-old children.

    “Results showed that inhibitory control but not working memory was significantly correlated with the rate of metacognitive monitoring behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bryce et al., (2015) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Marulis & Nelson (2021) found that only metacognitive knowledge but not procedural MC was a significant predictor of EF in 3-to 5-year-old children.

    “They found that only metacognitive knowledge but not procedural MC was a significant predictor of EF.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marulis & Nelson (2021) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Executive function skills predict school readiness and enable children to stay focused, resist distractions, and hold information in mind.

    “EF skills predict school readiness and make children ready to successfully adapt to the school setting by enabling children, for example, to stay focused, resist distractions and hold information in mind (Müller et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Müller et al., 2008

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Destan & Roebers (2015) reported that global monitoring was no significant predictor of EF in 6-years-old children, and also the over-and underestimation of children's performance was not significantly linked to EF.

    “Destan & Roebers (2015) reported that global monitoring was no significant predictor of EF in 6-years-old children, and also the over-and underestimation of children's performance was not significantly linked to EF.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Destan & Roebers (2015) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    A dynamic relationship between EF and MC over the course of development has been proposed.

    “A dynamic relationship between EF and MC over the course of development has also been proposed by Roebers (2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Roebers (2017) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Research with young children so far suggests a link between working memory and metacognitive control, but not monitoring.

    “One possible reason could be that research with young children so far suggests a link between working memory and metacognitive control (Bryce et al., 2015;Spiess et al., 2016), but not monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bryce et al., 2015 source
    • cites Spiess et al., 2016 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Marulis & Nelson (2021) found that only metacognitive knowledge, but not procedural MC, was predictive for EF.

    “This interpretation would also be in line with Marulis & Nelson (2021) finding that only metacognitive knowledge, but not procedural MC, was predictive for EF.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marulis & Nelson (2021) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Discussion

    The present study presents novel evidence for the conceptually assumed link between EF and MC, substantiating the critical role of early inhibition for later monitoring accuracy.

    “In conclusion, the present study presents novel evidence for the conceptually assumed link between EF and MC, substantiating the critical role of early inhibition for later monitoring accuracy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Previous studies either did not include a shifting measure or used a composite score for EF.

    “Regarding the relation between shifting and MC, there is not much known since previous studies either did not include a shifting measure (Bryce et al., 2015) or used a composite score for EF (Destan & Roebers, 2015;Marulis & Nelson, 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bryce et al., 2015 source
    • cites Destan & Roebers, 2015 source
    • cites Marulis & Nelson, 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Discussion

    Together, these findings could be interpreted as suggesting that inhibition serves as an important factor for monitoring skills in early years and as an essential antecedent for later monitoring during the transition to formal schooling, but is less critical once children are settled in elementary school.

    “Together, these findings could be interpreted as suggesting that inhibition serves as an important factor for monitoring skills in early years and as an essential antecedent for later monitoring during the transition to formal schooling, but is less critical once children are settled in elementary school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Kälin & Roebers (2020) found a link of shifting with the implicit, time-based measure of monitoring but not with the explicit measure of monitoring.

    “While Roebers et al., (2012) included a combined measure of shifting and updating and found no significant association with monitoring, Kälin & Roebers (2020) found a link of shifting with the implicit, time-based measure of monitoring but not with the explicit measure of monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kälin & Roebers, 2020 source
40 of 40

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Hesitating and taking time leads to more thorough monitoring.

    “Building on the assumption that hesitating and taking time leads to a more thorough monitoring”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    To be able to take time when monitoring, children need inhibition.

    “we assume that to be able to take this time, children need inhibition.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The present study is the first to examine the longitudinal association between EF skills and monitoring accuracy during children's transition to school.

    “To our knowledge, this is the first study examining the longitudinal association between EF skills and monitoring accuracy during children's transition to school.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Better inhibition skills allow children to take their time when monitoring, especially when uncertain, and monitoring needs time.

    “It was assumed that monitoring needs time, and better inhibition skills allowed children to take their time when monitoring, especially when uncertain.”
    “in our study we assumed that inhibition enables children to take their time when monitoring.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Better inhibition skills prevent children from giving rushed and inconsiderate monitoring judgments, which leads to more realistic performance estimations.

    “It can be assumed that better inhibition skills might prevent children from giving rushed and inconsiderate monitoring judgments which subsequently leads to more realistic performance estimations.”
5 of 5

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(1, 83) = 73.5reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,83) = 73.5, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 83) = 96.8reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,83) = 96.8,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 83) = 107reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,83) = 107, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 83) = 14.4reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,83) = 14.4,p < .001”

4 of 4

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Inhibition scores decline despite a higher-is-better scoring rule

    Minor

    The paper says the inhibition score was reverse-scored so that higher values indicate better performance. Table 1 instead shows its mean falling from 2245 at T1 to 1138 at T2, although the results describe this change as an improvement. Either the table reports unreversed scores or the stated scoring direction is wrong.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 57 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail, & J. W. Hagen (Eds.), Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp. 3–33). Erlbaum
  2. McCabe, L. A., Cunnington, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2004). The development of self-regulation in young children: Individual characteristics and environmental contexts. In R. F. Baumeister, & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 340–356). The Guilford Press
  3. Steiner, M., van Loon, M. H., Bayard, N. S., & Roebers, C. M. (2020). Development of children’s monitoring and control when learning from texts: Effects of age and test format. Metacognition and Learning, 15(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-019-09208-5 · DOI · Paper page

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Related

Authors
Kälin, S., & Roebers, C. M.
Affiliations
University of Bern (CH)
Corresponding author
Kälin, Sonja
ORCID
Venue
Metacognition and Learning
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2022-06-11
Volume
17
Issue
3
Pages
1079-1095
ISSN
  • 1556-1623 (ISSN-L)
  • 1556-1631
DOI
10.1007/s11409-022-09306-x
OpenAlex
W4293083671
Semantic Scholar
e7a01f01eb6551870a17a349f6ba13c819aa364f
Cited by
27
References
57
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 1
FWCI
8.20
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Metacognition and Learning (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
Funders
University of Bern
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords
executive function, metacognitive monitoring, inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, overconfidence, metacognition, transition to school, kindergarten, early elementary education, child cognitive development

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-06.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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