School Bullying, Perpetration, and Cyberhate: Overlapping Issues

Only Blaya & Audrin (2019) and Blaya et al. (2020) narrowed down the group features exclusively to ethnic or religious backgrounds.

“Only Blaya & Audrin (2019) and Blaya et al. (2020) narrowed down the group features exclusively to ethnic or religious backgrounds.”

Only a minority of definitions considered the harmfulness of hate speech in terms of a given community or social group.

“Only a minority of definitions (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Räsänen et al., 2016; Wachs et al., 2021a) considered the harmfulness of hate speech in terms of a given community or social group (e.g., disintegration of social cohesion, advocacy of hatred, rejection, violence, or hostility).”

Aspects of perpetration that refer to a person-centered basis of hate speech behavior-such as prejudice, bias, a devaluating attitude, hatred, or, most often, the purpose, aim or intention to harm-were mentioned in nine definitions.

“Aspects of perpetration that refer to a person-centered basis of hate speech behavior—such as prejudice, bias, a devaluating attitude, hatred, or, most often, the purpose, aim or intention to harm—were mentioned in nine definitions (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Vaught, 2012; Wachs et al., 2019, 2020, 2021a).”

Only a few definitions considered whether hate speech had occurred publicly or in private, directly or indirectly.

“Only a few definitions considered whether hate speech had occurred publicly or in private (Blaya et al., 2020), directly or indirectly (Wachs et al., 2019, 2021a).”

Seven studies, related to 14 publications, reported quantitative data for hate speech victimization.

“Seven studies, related to 14 publications, reported quantitative data for hate speech victimization (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Elpus & Carter, 2016; Lehmann, 2019, 2020; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; van Dorn, 2004; Wachs et al., 2019, 2020, 2021a, Wachs & Wright, 2018, 2019, 2020).”

Four studies, related to ten publications, reported frequencies of online hate speech perpetration.

“Four studies, related to ten publications, reported frequencies of online hate speech perpetration (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Wachs et al., 2019b, 2019a, 2021a, Wachs & Wright, 2018, 2019, 2020).”

The prevalence of hate speech was generally studied and reported in online contexts.

“The prevalence of hate speech was generally studied and reported in online contexts (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Tynes, 2005; Wachs et al., 2019b, 2019a, 2020, 2021a, Wachs & Wright, 2018, 2019, 2020).”

Only two studies, related to four publications, assessed whether online hate posts were searched for deliberately or not.

“Only two studies, related to four publications, assessed whether online hate posts were searched for deliberately or not (Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Blaya et al., 2020; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016).”

Locations mediated by ICT were referred to either globally or with items pointing to specific Internet sites, social media tools, or technologies.

“Locations mediated by ICT (e.g., sites on the Internet) were referred to either globally (e.g., Wachs et al., 2021a) or with items pointing to specific Internet sites, social media tools, or technologies (e.g., Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Blaya et al., 2020; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016).”

The specific target group was not identified in items used by Blaya et al. (2020) and Blaya & Audrin (2019).

“The specific target group was not identified in items used by Blaya et al. (2020) and Blaya & Audrin (2019).”

The remaining publications reported exposure rates within this range.

“The remaining publications reported exposure rates within this range (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Lehmann, 2019, 2020; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Tynes, 2005; van Dorn, 2004; Wachs et al., 2019; Wachs & Wright, 2018).”

For those perpetrators identified, such characteristics included, for instance, prejudicial views of minorities or toxic online disinhibition.

“For those perpetrators identified, such characteristics included, for instance, prejudicial views of minorities (Blaya et al., 2020; Wachs et al., 2020) or toxic online disinhibition (Wachs & Wright, 2018).”

Looking at relationship features, power imbalances may also link cyberbullying and cyberhate.

“Looking at relationship features, power imbalances may also link cyberbullying and cyberhate (Blaya et al., 2020).”

In Western European countries, perpetration rates varied from 5.2% in France to 11.3% in Germany.

“In Western European countries, perpetration rates varied from 5.2% in France (Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Blaya et al., 2020) to 11.3% in Germany (Wachs et al., 2019a, 2019, Wachs & Wright, 2018, 2019, 2020).”

The means and contexts in which both phenomena become apparent were also regarded as being similar.

“The means and contexts in which both phenomena become apparent were also regarded as being similar (Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Blaya et al., 2020).”

In 12 publications bullying was the concept that was seen to most closely overlap with hate speech and online or cyberhate.

“In 12 publications bullying was the concept that was seen to most closely overlap with hate speech and online or cyberhate (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Elpus & Carter, 2016; Lehmann, 2019, 2020; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Wachs et al., 2019a, 2019, 2020, Wachs & Wright, 2018, 2019).”

Findings on empirical associations between bullying and online hate speech were reported in four publications.

“Findings on empirical associations between bullying and online hate speech were reported in four publications (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Lehmann, 2019; Wachs et al., 2019).”