Challenges and barriers in virtual teams: a literature review

Prior work by Greenhalgh and Peacock found that snowballing is likely to identify important sources missed by protocol-driven searches.

“These additional methods were used because prior work by Greehalgh and Peacock [91] found that less efficient methods like snowballing are likely to identify important sources that would otherwise be missed, since predefined protocol driven search strategies cannot solely be relied on.”

• cites [91] Greenhalgh T, Peacock R (2005) Effectiveness and efficiency of search methods in systematic reviews of complex evidence: audit of primary sources. BMJ 331(7524):1064–1065 sourceSupported

Virtual interaction makes trust development much less likely.

“Teams that interact virtually are considerably less likely to develop trust [216].”

• cites [216] Robert LP, Denis AR, Hung YTC (2009) Individual swift trust and knowledge-based trust in face-to-face and virtual team members. J Manag Inf Syst 26(2):241–279 sourcePartly supported

  The Prior Theories and the Proposed Model section (page unavailable) says ICT-mediated interaction can slow relationship development and make trust harder to build. But the Abstract notes that high initial trust has been observed in virtual teams. The source therefore supports a difficulty in developing trust, not the unqualified claim that virtual teams are considerably less likely to develop it. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

High trust in a collaboration raises how positively the team views its own performance.

“That being said, trust has an affect on the perception of performance such that when trust is high in a collaboration, the team's perception of its performance is higher [182].”

• cites [182] Newman SA, Ford RC, Marshall GW (2019) Virtual team leader communication: employee perception and organizational reality. Int J Bus Commun. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488419829895 sourcePartly supported

  The Results section says that trust strengthens the relationship between perceived leader communication effectiveness and perceived team performance. The claim broadens this conditional finding about trust in a leader to trust in a collaboration generally; the paper does not establish that broader relationship. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

An in-person meeting at project launch can build a durable connection across geographic, temporal, and socio-cultural gaps.

“For this reason, it is recommended by many authors that members of virtual teams meet face-to-face when possible, particularly during the initial launch [136,151,265], when a face-to-face meeting can create a lasting bridge across geographical, temporal, and socio-cultural distance [265].”

• cites [136] Kirkman BL, Rosen B, Tesluk PE, Gibson CB (2004) The impact of team empowerment on virtual team performance: the moderating role of face-to-face interaction. Acad Manag J 47(2):175–192 sourcePartly supported

  In the literature review (around p. 178), the paper says virtual teams often have an initial face-to-face meeting. Its managerial implications also describe using limited in-person meetings to build team identity and a shared purpose. Neither passage establishes that a launch meeting creates a lasting bridge across geographic, temporal, and socio-cultural distance. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [151] Lipnack J, Stamps J (1997) Virtual teams: reaching across space, time, and organizations with technology. Wiley, New YorkNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [265] Watson-Manheim MB, Chudoba KM, Crowston K (2002) Discontinuities and continuities: a new way to understand virtual work. ITP 15(3):191–209 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Geographically distributed teams experience higher levels of conflict.

“Several researchers have concluded that geographically distributed teams experience higher levels of conflict [8,46,103,108,188,261].”

• cites [8] Armstrong DJ, Cole P (1995) Managing distances and differences in geographically distributed work groups. In: Jackson SE, Ruderman MN (eds) Diversity in work teams: research paradigms for a changing workplace. American Psychological Association, pp 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/10189-007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [46] Cramton CD (2001) The mutual knowledge problem and its consequences for dispersed collaboration. Organ Sci 12(3):346–371 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [103] Herbsleb JD, Mockus A, Finholt TA, Grinter RE (2000) Distance, dependencies, and delay in a global collaboration. In: Proceedings of CSCW’00. ACM, New York, pp 319–328 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [108] Hinds PJ, Mortensen M (2005) Understanding conflict in geographically distributed teams: the moderating effects of shared identity, shared context, and spontaneous communication. Organ Sci 16(3):290–307 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [261] Walsh JP, Maloney NG (2007) Collaboration structure, communication media, and problems in scientific work teams. J Comput Mediat Commun 12(2):712–732 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusion reports that remote scientific collaborations are particularly prone to coordination problems and misunderstandings. That supports a related difficulty associated with geographic distance, but the paper does not report higher levels of conflict specifically. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Familiarity reduces conflict.

“Familiarity, in addition, has been shown to reduce conflict [107].”

• cites [107] Hinds PJ, Bailey DE (2003) Out of sight, out of sync: understanding conflict in distributed teams. Organ Sci 14(6):615–632 sourceSupported

Conflict has a more extreme or detrimental effect on distributed teams than on co-located teams.

“There is some evidence that conflict has a more 'extreme' [107,159] or 'detrimental' [179] effect on distributed teams as opposed to co-located ones.”

• cites [107] Hinds PJ, Bailey DE (2003) Out of sight, out of sync: understanding conflict in distributed teams. Organ Sci 14(6):615–632 sourceSupported
• cites [159] Mannix EA, Griffith T, Neale MA (2002) The phenomenology of conflict in distributed work teams. In: Hinds P, Kiesler S (eds) Distributed work. The MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 213–233 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [179] Mortensen M, Hinds PJ (2001) Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. Int J Confl Manag 12(3):212–238 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Perceived proximity can have a profound influence on team interaction.

“Perceived proximity can have a profound influence on team interaction [34,82,189]”

• cites [34] Chae SW (2016) Perceived proximity and trust network on creative performance in virtual collaboration environment. Proc Comput Sci 91(Itqm):807–812 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [82] Gibbs JL, Kim H, Boyraz M (2017) Virtual teams. In: The international encyclopedia of organizational communication, pp 1–14. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jennifer_Gibbs/publication/314712225_Virtual_Teams/links/5a3d942a0f7e9ba8688e91f6/Virtual-Teams.pdf sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [189] O’Leary MB, Wilson JM, Metiu A (2012) Beyond being there: the symbolic role of communication and identification in the emergence of perceived proximity in geographically dispersed work. ESSEC working paper 1112 sourceSupported

Positive perceptions of leadership communication lead to positive perceptions of performance.

“In particular, positive perceptions of leadership communication results in positive perceptions of performance [182].”

• cites [182] Newman SA, Ford RC, Marshall GW (2019) Virtual team leader communication: employee perception and organizational reality. Int J Bus Commun. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488419829895 sourceSupported

Team members' perceptions of their leaders' use of communication tools and techniques can affect their perceptions of overall team performance.

“In addition to this, team members' perceptions of their leaders' use of communication tools and techniques can impact their perceptions of overall team performance [182]).”

• cites [182] Newman SA, Ford RC, Marshall GW (2019) Virtual team leader communication: employee perception and organizational reality. Int J Bus Commun. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488419829895 sourceSupported

Distance collaboration becomes easier when team members have common ground, because it allows communication via technology without frequent clarification.

“Distance collaboration becomes easier if team members have common ground (i.e., have worked together before [54], have shared past experiences [54], vocabulary [191], or mental models [168] etc.) since it allows them to communicate via technology without requiring frequent clarification [193].”

• cites [54] Cundill G, Harvey B, Tebboth M, Cochrane L, Currie-Alder B, Vincent K, Lawn J, Nicholls RJ, Scodanibbio L, Prakash A et al (2019) Large-scale transdisciplinary collaboration for adaptation research: challenges and insights. Glob Chall 3(4):1700132 sourceSupported
• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [168] Maynard MT, Gilson LL (2014) The role of shared mental model development in understanding virtual team effectiveness. Group Organ Manag 39(1):3–32 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Team identification can be built via face-to-face communication.

“Since team identification can be built via face-to-face communication [54]; we posit that in the absence of face-to-face communication, imbalanced teams should make use of CMC technologies that facilitate nuanced expression, such as video conferencing tools.”

• cites [54] Cundill G, Harvey B, Tebboth M, Cochrane L, Currie-Alder B, Vincent K, Lawn J, Nicholls RJ, Scodanibbio L, Prakash A et al (2019) Large-scale transdisciplinary collaboration for adaptation research: challenges and insights. Glob Chall 3(4):1700132 sourcePartly supported

  The passage labeled Abstract (page unavailable) describes a tight-knit community of practice and says face-to-face meetings were crucial for discovering shared interests. This supports a role for face-to-face interaction in building a group, but the paper does not specifically say that it builds team identification. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Virtual teams encounter challenges that explicit management can help reduce.

“Other studies showed that virtual teams face challenges that could be mitigated with explicit management [83,188,243,261].”

• cites [83] Gibson CB, Gibbs JL (2006) Unpacking the concept of virtuality: the effects of geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, dynamic structure, and national diversity on team innovation. Adm Sci Q 51(3):451–495 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [243] Tang JC, Zhao C, Cao X, Inkpen K (2011) Your time zone or mine? A study of globally time zone-shifted collaboration. In: Proceedings of CSCW’11. ACM, New York, pp 235–244 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [261] Walsh JP, Maloney NG (2007) Collaboration structure, communication media, and problems in scientific work teams. J Comput Mediat Commun 12(2):712–732 sourcePartly supported

  The Physical Proximity section says remote scientific collaborations can face coordination, cultural, and information-security problems. The Conclusion suggests that email and tools for sharing progress may help reduce some coordination problems, but the paper does not specifically say that explicit management mitigates the challenges of virtual teams. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The time required to establish common conceptual frameworks and personal relationships can constrain collaboration in virtual teams.

“The significant amount of time required to establish common conceptual frameworks and personal relationships can pose a significant constraint on collaboration in virtual teams [54].”

• cites [54] Cundill G, Harvey B, Tebboth M, Cochrane L, Currie-Alder B, Vincent K, Lawn J, Nicholls RJ, Scodanibbio L, Prakash A et al (2019) Large-scale transdisciplinary collaboration for adaptation research: challenges and insights. Glob Chall 3(4):1700132 sourceSupported

Perceived diversity (belief that others differ in education, race, and attitudes) is frequently associated with negative consequences of team heterogeneity, such as unwillingness to cooperate and coordinate.

“As a result, the belief that others are different in terms of education, race, and attitudes (i.e., perceived diversity) is frequently associated with the negative consequences of team heterogeneity [100], such as unwillingness to cooperate and coordinate activities [56,117,148].”

• cites [100] Harrison DA, Price KH, Gavin JH, Florey AT (2002) Time, teams, and task performance: changing effects of surface-and deep-level diversity on group functioning. AMJ 45(5):1029–1045 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [56] Dahlin KB, Weingart LR, Hinds PJ (2005) Team diversity and information use. Acad Manag J 48(6):1107–1123 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [117] Homan AC, Van Knippenberg D, Van Kleef GA, De Dreu CK (2007) Bridging faultlines by valuing diversity: diversity beliefs, information elaboration, and performance in diverse work groups. J Appl Psychol 92(5):1189 sourcePartly supported

  In “Informational Diversity and Diversity Faultlines” (page unavailable), the paper says converging diversity dimensions can create faultlines that may reduce trust and motivation to cooperate. It does not establish that perceived differences in education, race, and attitudes are frequently associated with negative consequences; its account is conditional on diversity dimensions converging. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [148] Lau DC, Murnighan JK (2005) Interactions within groups and subgroups: the effects of demographic faultlines. Acad Manag J 48(4):645–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Socio-economic variables such as the human development index significantly impact a country's scientific production and collaboration patterns.

“Socio-economic variables (e.g., human development index (HDI)) has a significant impact on a country's scientific production and collaboration patterns [118,152,199].”

• cites [118] Huang D (2015) Temporal evolution of multi-author papers in basic sciences from 1960 to 2010. Scientometrics 105(3):2137–2147 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [152] Livingston G, Waring B, Pacheco LF, Buchori D, Jiang Y, Gilbert L, Jha S (2016) Perspectives on the global disparity in ecological science. Bioscience 66(2):147–155 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (page not provided) link GDP, research investment, and publication counts, with different relationships in high- and low-HDI countries. Qualitative inequities (page not provided) reports that high-HDI countries collaborate more with one another, but says collaboration patterns were not analyzed in this review. The paper supports an association between socioeconomic conditions and scientific output and describes an HDI-related collaboration pattern; it does not establish a significant causal impact on both. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [199] Pan RK, Kaski K, Fortunato S (2012) World citation and collaboration networks: uncovering the role of geography in science. Sci Rep 2:902 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report that countries’ publication and citation totals scale with R&D spending, and the introductory passage says funding can facilitate collaboration. However, the paper does not establish that HDI significantly affects scientific production or national collaboration patterns; its collaboration analysis focuses on geography. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Discipline and background differences exert a stronger influence in distributed collaborations.

“Furthermore, differences in discipline and background have a stronger effect for distributed collaborations [211].”

• cites [211] Ponds R, Van Oort F, Frenken K (2007) The geographical and institutional proximity of research collaboration. Pap Reg Sci 86(3):423–443 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2 says geographical proximity can help overcome differences in institutional or organisational background, while Section 7 finds proximity more relevant for collaborations between organisations with different institutional backgrounds. This supports the idea that background differences can make collaboration over distance harder, but the paper does not establish that disciplinary differences have a stronger effect specifically in distributed collaborations. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Power asymmetries can create systemic barriers that need explicit navigation.

“Power asymmetries in particular can create systemic bariers that need to be explicitly navigated (as opposed to expecting perfect process design will resolve them) [54].”

• cites [54] Cundill G, Harvey B, Tebboth M, Cochrane L, Currie-Alder B, Vincent K, Lawn J, Nicholls RJ, Scodanibbio L, Prakash A et al (2019) Large-scale transdisciplinary collaboration for adaptation research: challenges and insights. Glob Chall 3(4):1700132 sourceSupported

The awareness approach is still commonly explored.

“Despite this, the awareness approach is still a commonly explored method [7,134], which suggests that there is a research opportunity to address this controversy.”

• cites [7] Ardissono L, Bosio G (2012) Context-dependent awareness support in open collaboration environments. UMUAI 22(3):223–254 sourceSupported
• cites [134] Kimmerle J, Cress U (2007) Group awareness and self-presentation in the information-exchange dilemma: an interactional approach. In: Proceedings of CSCL’07. International Society of the Learning Sciences, New York, pp 370–378 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Competing incentives can undermine team performance.

“In addition, competing incentives can undermine a team's performance [54].”

• cites [54] Cundill G, Harvey B, Tebboth M, Cochrane L, Currie-Alder B, Vincent K, Lawn J, Nicholls RJ, Scodanibbio L, Prakash A et al (2019) Large-scale transdisciplinary collaboration for adaptation research: challenges and insights. Glob Chall 3(4):1700132 sourceSupported

It is frequently unrealistic to expect these dynamics to resolve themselves quickly into an open and trusting relationship.

“Unfortunately, it is frequently unrealistic to expect these dynamics to resolve themselves in a short period of time and shift into an open and trusting relationship [54].”

• cites [54] Cundill G, Harvey B, Tebboth M, Cochrane L, Currie-Alder B, Vincent K, Lawn J, Nicholls RJ, Scodanibbio L, Prakash A et al (2019) Large-scale transdisciplinary collaboration for adaptation research: challenges and insights. Glob Chall 3(4):1700132 sourceSupported
  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Groups in a virtual team may have different backgrounds that need reconciliation because organizations within a group can have different expertise and experience, creating incompatible views.

“In addition to differences in technical language, various groups within a virtual team may have different backgrounds that need to be reconciled, as different organizations within a group may have different expertise and experience that create incompatible views [55].”

• cites [55] Curtis B, Krasner H, Iscoe N (1988) A field study of the software design process for large systems. Commun ACM 31(11):1268–1287 sourcePartly supported

  The Business Milieu section reports that companies working together understood the application through their own product lines, clashed over differing assumptions, and needed extended coordination to resolve misunderstandings. The source supports the point about organizational backgrounds producing conflicting views, but the passage concerns multicompany software-design teams, not specifically virtual teams. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The literature is inconsistent about the effects of discipline on collaboration.

“However, there are inconsistencies in the literature with regards to the effects of discipline on collaboration.”

The review identified major factors and challenges affecting collaboration in virtual teams.

“In this literature review, the major factors and challenges that impact collaboration in virtual teams were identified.”

Consensus is lacking on whether temporally distributed teams face higher coordination costs.

“There is also a lack of consensus within the community as to whether coordination costs are higher in teams that are temporally distributed.”

Studies disagree about the effects of work culture on collaboration.

“However, there are also inconsistencies between studies exploring the effects of work culture on collaboration.”

Distance factors (geographical, temporal, perceived) are associated with challenges including reduced motivation and awareness and difficulty establishing trust.

“Section 5 discussed distance factors (geographical, temporal, and perceived distance) and their associated challenges, including reduced motivation and awareness and difficulty establishing trust.”

The community lacks consensus on whether virtual teams encounter more work-culture-related problems than co-located teams.

“This is yet another example of the community's lack of consensus on issues surrounding collaboration.”

The question of whether background heterogeneity has a positive or negative effect on collaboration is unresolved due to contradictions in the literature.

“This question is also currently unresolved, given the contradictions in literature.”

The literature contains contradictions regarding how geographic distance affects affective and task-based conflict.

“Contradictions exist in the current literature as to the effect of geographic distance on affective and task-based conflict.”

It is uncertain which conclusion about geographic distance and conflict is accurate.

“It is therefore uncertain as to which conclusion is accurate.”

The review described challenges in five categories: geographical distance, temporal distance, perceived distance, configuration of dispersed teams, and diversity of workers.

“Using the selected studies, we described challenges as belonging to five categories: geographical distance, temporal distance, perceived distance, the configuration of dispersed teams, and diversity of workers.”

Because virtual teams depend on technology, members can withdraw when their disengagement is unnoticed, owing to reduced social pressure.

“In addition to this, in situations where disengagement is not apparent, virtual team's reliance on technology to communicate allows team members to disengage from the team due to decreased social impact [16].”

• cites [16] Blaskovich JL (2008) Exploring the effect of distance: an experimental investigation of virtual collaboration, social loafing, and group decisions. J Inf Syst 22(1):27–46 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When virtual team members become more isolated, their contributions and participation decrease.

“Isolation can have an effect as well-when members of a virtual team become more isolated, their contributions and participation with the team decrease [32].”

• cites [32] Carte T, Chidambaram L (2004) A capabilities-based theory of technology deployment in diverse teams: leapfrogging the pitfalls of diversity and leveraging its potential with collaborative technology. J Assoc Inf Syst 5(11):4 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Team trust strongly influences how well a team performs.

“Team trust has a significant effect on team performance [59]”

• cites [59] De Jong BA, Dirks KT, Gillespie N (2016) Trust and team performance: a meta-analysis of main effects, moderators, and covariates. J Appl Psychol 101(8):1134 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When virtual teammates cannot see one another's effort, they rely more on perceptions and assumptions that may be biased and wrongly negative.

“Furthermore, the inability of virtual team members to observe each other's actual effort tends to lead to a greater reliance on perceptions and assumptions that could be both biased and erroneously negative [206].”

• cites [206] Pe narroja V, Orengo V, Zornoza A, Hernández A (2013) The effects of virtuality level on task-related collaborative behaviors: the mediating role of team trust. Comput Hum Behav 29(3):967–974 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Keeping track of remote colleagues' progress without casual observation is a major collaboration difficulty.

“In a similar vein, the difficulties associated with maintaining awareness of collaborators' work progress at remote locations without the ability to casually 'look over their shoulder' is a significant challenge to collaboration [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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Physical distance factors are tightly coupled with cognitive, social, and emotional challenges in virtual teams.

“The physical factors relating to distance are tightly coupled with the cognitive, social, and emotional challenges faced by virtual teams.”

Geographic separation is recognized as creating difficulties for virtual teams.

“Furthermore, geographical distance is well known to pose challenges for virtual teams [191].”

• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual teams spend substantial time and money relocating members for specific projects to avoid distance-related hindrances.

“As a result, virtual teams spend substantial time and money to relocate team members for specific projects to avoid the hindrances to teamwork associated with distance [231,257].”

• cites [231] Siebdrat F, Hoegl M, Ernst H (2014) Subjective distance and team collaboration in distributed teams. J Prod Innov Manag 31(4):765–779 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [257] Van den Bulte C, Moenaert RK (1998) The effects of R&D team co-location on communication patterns among R&D, marketing, and manufacturing. Manag Sci 44(11–part–2):S1–S18 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Collaborative work is significantly delayed without awareness.

“Collaborative work is significantly delayed without such awareness [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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Separation blocks the informal visual cues that help people stay aware.

“Similarly, distance prevents the informal visual observations necessary for maintaining awareness [8].”

• cites [8] Armstrong DJ, Cole P (1995) Managing distances and differences in geographically distributed work groups. In: Jackson SE, Ruderman MN (eds) Diversity in work teams: research paradigms for a changing workplace. American Psychological Association, pp 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/10189-007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual teams have collaboration difficulties that make it hard for them to be as successful as co-located teams.

“As a result, virtual teams are experiencing difficulties collaborating that are making it difficult for them to be as successful as co-located teams [64,151,191].”

• cites [64] Dubé L, Robey D (2009) Surviving the paradoxes of virtual teamwork. ISJ 19(1):3–30 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [151] Lipnack J, Stamps J (1997) Virtual teams: reaching across space, time, and organizations with technology. Wiley, New YorkNot checked yet

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• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual teams let organizations include key specialists regardless of their physical location.

“The use of virtual teams allows organizations to enroll key specialists, regardless of their physical location [106,151].”

• cites [106] Hinds P, Kiesler S (2002) Distributed work. MIT Press, Cambridge sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [151] Lipnack J, Stamps J (1997) Virtual teams: reaching across space, time, and organizations with technology. Wiley, New YorkNot checked yet

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In a social dilemma game, collaborations using distance technology showed more fragile trust than face-to-face collaborations.

“The effect of stripping body language, subtle voice inflections, facial expressions, etc. from communication was clearly shown by the performance of people participating in a social dilemma game who relied on distance technology for communication-these collaborations markedly showed more fragile trust than those that communicated face-to-face.”

• cites [20] Bos N, Olson J, Gergle D, Olson G, Wright Z (2002) Effects of four computer—mediated communications channels on trust development. In: Proceedings the of CHI’02. ACM, New York, pp 135–140 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual team communication tends to be more formal and work-focused than communication in co-located settings.

“In contrast, communications in virtual teams are often more formal than in colocated settings and focus more on work-related issues [13].”

• cites [13] Berry GR (2011) Enhancing effectiveness on virtual teams: understanding why traditional team skills are insufficient. J Bus Commun (1973) 48(2):186–206 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

For groups that are unstable and changing, informal encounters matter especially.

“These types of informal encounters are particularly important for unstable, dynamic groups [2].”

• cites [2] Ågerfalk PJ, Fitzgerald B, Holmstrom Olsson H, Lings B, Lundell B, Ó Conchúir E (2005) A framework for considering opportunities and threats in distributed software development. In: Proceedings of the of DiSD’05. Austrian Computer Society, pp 47–61 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Informal communication is linked to in-person encounters.

“Informal communication is associated with face-toface encounters [73,191], thus, face-to-face communication plays an important role in collaboration [64] and has been described as being 'crucial ' [196] or 'indispensable' [11], particularly at the beginning of a project.”

• cites [73] Espinosa JA, Carmel E (2004) The effect of time separation on coordination costs in global software teams: a dyad model. In: Proceedings of HICSS’04. IEEE, New York, p 10 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Trust strongly affects how committed people are to their team and project.

“For example, commitment to the team and project is greatly influenced by trust [28].”

• cites [28] Buvik MP, Tvedt SD (2017) The influence of project commitment and team commitment on the relationship between trust and knowledge sharing in project teams. Proj Manag J 48(2):5–21 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In virtual teams, communication strongly predicts outcomes like better performance and greater commitment.

“Communication in virtual teams is a key predictor of various outcomes such as improved performance and increased commitment [76].”

• cites [76] Ferrell JZ, Herb KC (2012) Improving communication in virtual teams, pp 1–7. https://www.siop.org/Research-Publications/SIOP-White-Papers sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Trust is affected by how effective, reliable, and useful a virtual team's CMC technology is.

“Furthermore, the effectiveness, reliability, and usefulness of the CMC technology used by the virtual team affects trust [42].”

• cites [42] Choi OK, Cho E (2019) The mechanism of trust affecting collaboration in virtual teams and the moderating roles of the culture of autonomy and task complexity. Comput Hum Behav 91:305–315 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Communication is a core difficulty tied to virtual work.

“Prior work has identified team communication as one of the fundamental challenges associated with virtuality [5].”

• cites [5] Alsharo M, Gregg D, Ramirez R (2017) Virtual team effectiveness: the role of knowledge sharing and trust. Inf Manag 54(4):479–490 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Early trust may lead virtual teams to notice evidence that teammates are competent while overlooking contradictory evidence.

“In addition, virtual teams that develop trust early may notice information confirming the competence of their team members and may not notice contradicting evidence [273].”

• cites [273] Zolin R, Hinds PJ, Fruchter R, Levitt RE (2004) Interpersonal trust in cross-functional, geographically distributed work: a longitudinal study. Inf Organ 14(1):1–26 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Informal interactions happen more often in person.

“However, these types of informal interactions more commonly occur face-to-face [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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Trust can be improved by social measures, such as encouraging early social exchange or creating casual, non-work interaction opportunities.

“Taking social approaches, such as promoting social exchanges early on in the life of a project [123], or creating opportunities for casual, non-work-related interactions between collaborators [193], can improve trust.”

• cites [123] Jarvenpaa SL, Leidner DE (1998) Communication and trust in global virtual teams. JCMC 3(4):791–815 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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In-person communication is seen as irreplaceable for creating and repairing trust.

“Furthermore, [186] identified face-to-face communication as having an 'irreplaceable' role in building and repairing trust.”

• cites [186] O’Hara-Devereaux M, Johansen R (1994) Globalwork: bridging distance, culture, and time. Jossey-Bass Pub, San FranciscoNot checked yet

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For good collaboration, developing mutual trust and knowing collaborators personally matters more than fixing technical problems.

“In fact, building mutual trust and personal knowledge about collaborators is more important to a good collaboration than resolving technical issues [250].”

• cites [250] Treinen JJ, Miller-Frost SL (2006) Following the sun: case studies in global software development. IBM J Res Dev 45(4):773–783 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Swift trust is especially fragile in virtual teams because of disruptions and differences in time, distance, organization, and culture.

“Swift trust in virtual teams is particularly fragile due to the unexpected disruptions and differences across time, distance, organization, and culture in virtual teams [266].”

• cites [266] Watson-Manheim MB, Chudoba KM, Crowston K (2012) Perceived discontinuities and constructed continuities in virtual work. Inf Syst J 22(1):29–52 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Trust acts as a binding force in collaborations.

“and can be considered the 'glue' that holds collaborations together [48].”

• cites [48] Crisp CB, Jarvenpaa SL (2013) Swift trust in global virtual teams: trusting beliefs and normative actions. J Pers Psychol 12(1):45 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Fewer chances for informal, accidental information exchange in shared spaces reduce a virtual team's knowledge sharing.

“This is as a result of limited opportunities for the informal and unintentional information exchanges that often happen in shared spaces such as the hallway, water cooler, or parking lot [13].This in turn diminishes a virtual team's ability to share knowledge [92].”

• cites [13] Berry GR (2011) Enhancing effectiveness on virtual teams: understanding why traditional team skills are insufficient. J Bus Commun (1973) 48(2):186–206 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [92] Gressgård LJ (2011) Virtual team collaboration and innovation in organizations. Team Perform Manag Int J. https://doi.org/10.1108/dlo.2011.08125daa.007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Trust suffers when communication among collaborators is irregular, unpredictable, and unfair.

“This influence may be further affected by the manner in which communication technology is used, since irregular, unpredictable, and inequitable communication between collaborators hampers trust [123].”

• cites [123] Jarvenpaa SL, Leidner DE (1998) Communication and trust in global virtual teams. JCMC 3(4):791–815 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Studies disagree about trust's performance effect: some find benefits, others find little or none.

“Some prior work [128] reports positive effects of trust on performance while others report negligible or no effects [124].”

• cites [128] Kanawattanachai P, Yoo Y (2002) Dynamic nature of trust in virtual teams. J Strateg Inf Syst 11(3–4):187–213 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [124] Jarvenpaa SL, Shaw TR, Staples DS (2004) Toward contextualized theories of trust: the role of trust in global virtual teams. Inf Syst Res 15(3):250–267 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Distance-related low trust influenced whether workers saw themselves as part of a team spread across locations.

“Additionally, several studies (e.g., [116,142,188]) showed that low trust caused by distance affected workers' identification of themselves as belonging to a team spanning locations.”

• cites [116] Holmstrom H, Conchúir EÓ, Agerfalk J, Fitzgerald B (2006) Global software development challenges: a case study on temporal, geographical and socio-cultural distance. In: Proceedings of ICGSE’06. IEEE, New York, pp 3–11 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [142] Kotlarsky J, Oshri I (2005) Social ties, knowledge sharing and successful collaboration in globally distributed system development projects. Eur J Inf Syst 14(1):37–48 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Informal talk can take up to 75 minutes of a workday in co-located collaborations.

“Often in co-located collaborations, informal communication (i.e., 'coffee talk' [57]) accounts for up to 75 minutes of a workday [102].”

• cites [102] Herbsleb JD, Mockus A (2003) An empirical study of speed and communication in globally distributed software development. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 29(6):481–494 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Video during communication helps when collaborators do not know each other well.

“This finding agrees with Olson and Olson's assertion that the presence of video when communicating helps in situations where workers are not familiar with each other [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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Trust issues can delay or even halt project progress.

“These issues have detrimental effects on collaborations that can delay or even halt the progress of a project.”

Early trust gives members confidence to take normative actions that maintain trust and support later performance.

“As a result of their early development of trust, members of these teams also gain the confidence to engage in normative actions that sustain both trust and later performance [48].”

• cites [48] Crisp CB, Jarvenpaa SL (2013) Swift trust in global virtual teams: trusting beliefs and normative actions. J Pers Psychol 12(1):45 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

An initial in-person meeting at the start of a team relationship helps trust develop.

“It is unsurprising then that trust development is enhanced by facilitating an initial face-to-face meeting at the beginning of a team's relationship [163].”

• cites [163] Marlow SL, Lacerenza CN, Salas E (2017) Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual framework and research agenda. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):575–589 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When teams lack extensive experience with the task, each other, and their communication method, there is a greater need for synchronous computer-mediated communication technology.

“In contrast, when teams do not have this extensive experience, there is a greater need for synchronous CMC technology [60].”

• cites [60] Dennis AR, Fuller RM, Valacich JS (2008) Media, tasks, and communication processes: a theory of media synchronicity. MIS Q 32(3):575–600 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Distance makes in-person communication harder through higher costs, logistics, and the money and time burdens of travel.

“Geographic barriers to faceto-face communication include an increase in cost and logistics [2] and the burdens of travel in terms of money and time [11].”

• cites [2] Ågerfalk PJ, Fitzgerald B, Holmstrom Olsson H, Lings B, Lundell B, Ó Conchúir E (2005) A framework for considering opportunities and threats in distributed software development. In: Proceedings of the of DiSD’05. Austrian Computer Society, pp 47–61 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [11] Battin RD, Crocker R, Kreidler J, Subramanian K (2001) Leveraging resources in global software development. IEEE Softw 18(2):70–77 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Travel to enable in-person contact is considered essential for project success.

“It is unsurprising, then, that traveling for obtaining face-to-face contact is imperative for project success [116].”

• cites [116] Holmstrom H, Conchúir EÓ, Agerfalk J, Fitzgerald B (2006) Global software development challenges: a case study on temporal, geographical and socio-cultural distance. In: Proceedings of ICGSE’06. IEEE, New York, pp 3–11 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual teams that use computer-mediated communication to supplement communication when face-to-face interaction is absent may have difficulties in decision-making.

“Furthermore, virtual teams that rely on CMC technology (e.g., instant messaging) to supplement communication in the absence of face-to-face interactions may have difficulties in their decision-making processes [173].”

• cites [173] McNamara K, Dennis AR, Carte TA (2008) It’s the thought that counts: the mediating effects of information processing in virtual team decision making. Inf Syst Manag 25(1):20–32 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When teams use email, it is difficult to determine whether the information was understood without vocal and nonverbal cues.

“Furthermore, when teams use email for communication, it becomes difficult to determine whether the information contained within the email was understood in the absence of vocal and nonverbal cues [163].”

• cites [163] Marlow SL, Lacerenza CN, Salas E (2017) Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual framework and research agenda. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):575–589 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The technical competence of team members can be an additional challenge for remote collaborations that rely on technology.

“Since remote collaborations must rely on technology in lieu of face-to-face communication, the level of technical competence of the team members can pose an additional challenge [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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People working remotely are often left out of spontaneous decisions made outside formal meetings.

“As a result, remote collaborators are often excluded from spontaneous decisions that are made outside formal meetings [8].”

• cites [8] Armstrong DJ, Cole P (1995) Managing distances and differences in geographically distributed work groups. In: Jackson SE, Ruderman MN (eds) Diversity in work teams: research paradigms for a changing workplace. American Psychological Association, pp 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/10189-007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual teams that do not meet face to face may be better at adapting their conceptualization of a task when a team member completes a task in a novel manner.

“Finally, virtual teams that do not meet face to face may be better at adapting their conceptualization of a task in response to a team member completing a task in a novel manner [163]”

• cites [163] Marlow SL, Lacerenza CN, Salas E (2017) Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual framework and research agenda. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):575–589 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The choice of computer-mediated communication technology strongly affects communication because each method differs in its capacity to convey verbal and nonverbal cues.

“Thus, the choice of CMC technology has a heavy influence on communication because each method offers a different capacity to convey verbal and nonverbal cues [178].”

• cites [178] Montoya MM, Massey AP, Hung YTC, Crisp CB (2009) Can you hear me now? Communication in virtual product development teams. J Prod Innov Manag 26(2):139–155 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Teams unable to adopt and integrate basic technology into their daily workflow are unlikely to use more sophisticated collaboration technology.

“Teams that are unable to adopt and integrate basic technology into their everyday workflow are unlikely to use more complicated and sophisticated collaboration technology (e.g., multi-pane videoconferencing) [191] that may better support visual and verbal cues, enriching distance communication.”

• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A lack of face-to-face contact leads virtual teams to have lower cohesion and personal rapport among members.

“This lack of face-to-face contact results in virtual teams having a lower sense of cohesion and personal rapport between team members [263].”

• cites [263] Warkentin ME, Sayeed L, Hightower R (1997) Virtual teams versus face-to-face teams: an exploratory study of a web-based conference system. Decis Sci 28(4):975–996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When teams have experience with the task, with each other, and with their communication method, there is less need for synchronous computer-mediated communication technology.

“For example, when teams have experience with the task at hand, with each other, and with their communication method, there is less of a need for synchronous CMC technology (e.g., video conferencing) [60].”

• cites [60] Dennis AR, Fuller RM, Valacich JS (2008) Media, tasks, and communication processes: a theory of media synchronicity. MIS Q 32(3):575–600 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Geographic separation sharply cuts opportunities for informal interaction.

“Opportunities for informal interactions are greatly reduced by geographic distance between collaborators [93,132].”

• cites [93] Grinter RE (2003) Recomposition: coordinating a web of software dependencies. J CSCW 12(3):297–327 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [132] Kiel L (2003) Experiences in distributed development: a case study. In: Proceedings of international workshop on global software development at ICSE’03Not checked yet

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Computer-mediated feedback reduces perceptions of fairness compared with face-to-face feedback.

“Furthermore, compared to face-to-face feedback, computer-mediated feedback reduces perceptions of fairness [3].”

• cites [3] Alder GS, Noel TW, Ambrose ML (2006) Clarifying the effects of internet monitoring on job attitudes: the mediating role of employee trust. Inf Manag 43(7):894–903 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Communication timeliness has a stronger influence on performance in virtual teams.

“As a result, communication timeliness has a higher influence on performance in virtual teams [163].”

• cites [163] Marlow SL, Lacerenza CN, Salas E (2017) Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual framework and research agenda. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):575–589 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Asynchronous communication media can cause virtual team members to divide attention across tasks while participating in teamwork, reducing investment in tasks.

“Members of virtual teams may also divide their attention between various tasks while simultaneously participating in teamwork interactions due to the asynchronous nature of communication media, resulting in a lack of investment in the tasks [163].”

• cites [163] Marlow SL, Lacerenza CN, Salas E (2017) Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual framework and research agenda. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):575–589 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The level of technical infrastructure can create collaboration challenges.

“Furthermore, the level of technical infrastructure can also create collaboration challenges [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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Initiating spontaneous communication could be perceived as intrusive.

“However, it is important to note that, like in the case of the telephone, initiating spontaneous communication could be perceived as intrusive [144].”

• cites [144] Kraut RE, Fussell SR, Brennan SE, Siege J (2002) Understanding effects of proximity on collaboration: implications for technologies to support remote collaborative work. In: Hinds P, Kiesler S (eds) Distributed work. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 137–162 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Shared context and a shared sense of team identity have a moderating effect on conflict, particularly task and affective conflict.

“Both shared context [108] and a shared sense of team identity have a moderating effect on conflict [108, 179], particularly task and affective conflict [108,179].”

• cites [108] Hinds PJ, Mortensen M (2005) Understanding conflict in geographically distributed teams: the moderating effects of shared identity, shared context, and spontaneous communication. Organ Sci 16(3):290–307 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [179] Mortensen M, Hinds PJ (2001) Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. Int J Confl Manag 12(3):212–238 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When a distant teammate is unavailable, a collaborator may make assumptions based on local culture and preferences to resolve issues, causing rework if those assumptions are incorrect.

“In some cases, this unavailability causes the collaborator in need of help to make assumptions based on local culture and preferences in order to reach an immediate resolution of issues-which can cause rework when these assumptions are incorrect [250].”

• cites [250] Treinen JJ, Miller-Frost SL (2006) Following the sun: case studies in global software development. IBM J Res Dev 45(4):773–783 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Scheduling global meetings can be virtually impossible because of the lack of overlapping work hours.

“In fact, scheduling global meetings can be virtually impossible for this reason [250].”

• cites [250] Treinen JJ, Miller-Frost SL (2006) Following the sun: case studies in global software development. IBM J Res Dev 45(4):773–783 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Process conflict can be effectively handled using asynchronous communication technologies that document the team's agreements about tasks and responsibilities.

“Conflict related to processes can be effectively handled using asynchronous communication technologies that also document the team's agreements regarding tasks and responsibilities [165].”

• cites [165] Maruping LM, Agarwal R (2004) Managing team interpersonal processes through technology: a task-technology fit perspective. J Appl Psychol 89(6):975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Missing information and miscommunications between geographically distant sites lead teammates to make harsh attributions about collaborators at other locations.

“Furthermore, missing information and miscommunications between geographically distant sites result in teammates making harsh attributions about their collaborators at other locations [46].”

• cites [46] Cramton CD (2001) The mutual knowledge problem and its consequences for dispersed collaboration. Organ Sci 12(3):346–371 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Reduced overlap in work hours results in coordination delays.

“Additionally, reduced overlap in work hours results in coordination delays [49].”

• cites [49] Cummings JN (2011) Geography is alive and well in virtual teams. Commun ACM 54(8):24–26 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Existing tools and infrastructures have limitations that prevent communication technology from fully supporting informal interactions.

“From the identification of these challenges, we can clearly see that existing tools and infrastructures have limitations that are preventing communication technology from fully supporting informal interactions.”

Teams that rely heavily on communication technology have more instances of task conflict.

“There are also more instances of task conflict in teams that rely heavily on communication technology [179].”

• cites [179] Mortensen M, Hinds PJ (2001) Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. Int J Confl Manag 12(3):212–238 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Geographically based subgroups within a collaboration provoke us-versus-them attitudes.

“One pervasive issue is the development of geographically based subgroups within a collaboration that provoke us-versus-them attitudes [8,46].”

• cites [8] Armstrong DJ, Cole P (1995) Managing distances and differences in geographically distributed work groups. In: Jackson SE, Ruderman MN (eds) Diversity in work teams: research paradigms for a changing workplace. American Psychological Association, pp 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/10189-007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [46] Cramton CD (2001) The mutual knowledge problem and its consequences for dispersed collaboration. Organ Sci 12(3):346–371 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In some virtual teams, communication becomes limited to temporally co-located teammates because it is easier, bypassing teammates at other sites who should have been included.

“Bjørn and Ngwenyama found that in some virtual teams, communication would become limited to temporally co-located teammates because it was easier, bypassing teammates at other sites who should have been included [14].”

• cites [14] Bjørn P, Ngwenyama O (2009) Virtual team collaboration: building shared meaning, resolving breakdowns and creating translucence. Inf Syst J 19(3):227–253 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Temporal distance makes repairing the consequences of misunderstandings and reworking portions of a project more costly.

“This effect is especially unfortunate given that temporal distance makes repairing the consequences of misunderstandings and reworking portions of the project more costly [73].”

• cites [73] Espinosa JA, Carmel E (2004) The effect of time separation on coordination costs in global software teams: a dyad model. In: Proceedings of HICSS’04. IEEE, New York, p 10 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Conflicts frequently occur as a consequence of assumptions and incorrectly interpreted communications.

“Conflicts frequently occur as a consequence of assumptions and incorrectly interpreted communications [103].”

• cites [103] Herbsleb JD, Mockus A, Finholt TA, Grinter RE (2000) Distance, dependencies, and delay in a global collaboration. In: Proceedings of CSCW’00. ACM, New York, pp 319–328 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Geographically distributed teams are more susceptible to interpersonal and task-based conflict.

“In particular, geographically distributed teams are more susceptible to interpersonal [108] and task-based conflict [108,179].”

• cites [108] Hinds PJ, Mortensen M (2005) Understanding conflict in geographically distributed teams: the moderating effects of shared identity, shared context, and spontaneous communication. Organ Sci 16(3):290–307 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [179] Mortensen M, Hinds PJ (2001) Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. Int J Confl Manag 12(3):212–238 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Video-conferencing technologies are particularly suited for early-stage virtual teams because they are synchronous and media rich.

“Video-conferencing technologies are particularly suited for this situation being both synchronous and media rich [165].”

• cites [165] Maruping LM, Agarwal R (2004) Managing team interpersonal processes through technology: a task-technology fit perspective. J Appl Psychol 89(6):975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The stage of a virtual team's development affects communication.

“Furthermore, stage at which a virtual team is at in their development will also affect communication [165].”

• cites [165] Maruping LM, Agarwal R (2004) Managing team interpersonal processes through technology: a task-technology fit perspective. J Appl Psychol 89(6):975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

High temporal distance reduces the number of overlapping work hours between collaboration sites.

“One key disadvantage to high temporal distance is the reduced number of overlapping work hours between collaboration sites [11,33,132].”

• cites [11] Battin RD, Crocker R, Kreidler J, Subramanian K (2001) Leveraging resources in global software development. IEEE Softw 18(2):70–77 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [33] Casey V, Richardson I (2004) Practical experience of virtual team software development. https://ulir.ul.ie/bitstream/handle/10344/2149/2004_Casey.pdf?sequence=2 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [132] Kiel L (2003) Experiences in distributed development: a case study. In: Proceedings of international workshop on global software development at ICSE’03Not checked yet

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Task-related conflict is best managed through synchronous communication technologies such as video-conferencing.

“Task related conflict, for example, is best managed through synchronous communication technologies such as video-conferencing [165].”

• cites [165] Maruping LM, Agarwal R (2004) Managing team interpersonal processes through technology: a task-technology fit perspective. J Appl Psychol 89(6):975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A distant teammate may not be available when their expertise is needed.

“For example, a distant teammate may not be available when their expertise is needed [2].”

• cites [2] Ågerfalk PJ, Fitzgerald B, Holmstrom Olsson H, Lings B, Lundell B, Ó Conchúir E (2005) A framework for considering opportunities and threats in distributed software development. In: Proceedings of the of DiSD’05. Austrian Computer Society, pp 47–61 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Time zone differences and time shifts in work patterns can be manipulated to decrease or increase temporal distance.

“In fact, time zone differences and time shifts in work patterns can be manipulated to either decrease or increase temporal distance [2].”

• cites [2] Ågerfalk PJ, Fitzgerald B, Holmstrom Olsson H, Lings B, Lundell B, Ó Conchúir E (2005) A framework for considering opportunities and threats in distributed software development. In: Proceedings of the of DiSD’05. Austrian Computer Society, pp 47–61 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Spontaneous communication, primarily achieved face-to-face, mitigates conflict in virtual teams by facilitating identification and handling of conflict.

“Spontaneous communication-which, as previously discussed, is primarily achieved face-to-face-has been demonstrated to mitigate conflict in virtual teams, particularly due to its role in facilitating the identification and handling of conflict [108].”

• cites [108] Hinds PJ, Mortensen M (2005) Understanding conflict in geographically distributed teams: the moderating effects of shared identity, shared context, and spontaneous communication. Organ Sci 16(3):290–307 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Temporal distance decreases the number of opportunities for informal communication.

“Furthermore, as with geographic distance, temporal distance decreases the number of opportunities for informal communication [93,132] since the window in which all collaborators are available is small.”

• cites [93] Grinter RE (2003) Recomposition: coordinating a web of software dependencies. J CSCW 12(3):297–327 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [132] Kiel L (2003) Experiences in distributed development: a case study. In: Proceedings of international workshop on global software development at ICSE’03Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Interdependent, tightly coupled work requires a high amount of interaction and negotiation, making it very difficult to do at a distance.

“Because interdependent (i.e., tightly coupled) work requires a high amount of interaction and negotiation, it is very difficult to do at a distance [191].”

• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Developers starting their workday may become overwhelmed by the number of asynchronous messages left during the previous night.

“Finally, developers starting their workday may become overwhelmed by the number of asynchronous messages left during the previous night [19].”

• cites [19] Boland D, Fitzgerald B (2004) Transitioning from a co-located to a globally-distributed software development team: a case study at Analog Devices Inc. In: Proceedings of the international workshop on global software development at ICSE’04. IET, pp 4–7 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Most projects contain both tightly and loosely coupled work.

“This observation is important since most projects have both varieties of work [191].”

• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When a team member's contribution depends on a task completed in an earlier time zone, failure to complete the earlier task can result in the loss of an entire workday.

“When work is organized such that a team member's contribution is dependent upon a task completed by a team member in an earlier time zone, a failure to complete the earlier task can result in the loss of an entire workday [250].”

• cites [250] Treinen JJ, Miller-Frost SL (2006) Following the sun: case studies in global software development. IBM J Res Dev 45(4):773–783 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Tightly coupled work in virtual teams leads to less successful projects.

“Thus, tightly coupled work in virtual teams leads to less successful projects [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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Writing ideas in emails increases the risk of misunderstandings between collaborators compared with talking in person or by telephone.

“Furthermore, the process of writing ideas in emails increases the risk of misunderstandings between collaborators [57] over talking in person or via the telephone.”

• cites [57] Damian DE, Zowghi D (2002) The impact of stakeholders’ geographical distribution on managing requirements in a multi-site organization. In: Proceedings of RE’02. IEEE, New York, pp 319–328 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Collaborators may be geographically distant yet feel proximally near.

“The concept of perceived distance is why collaborators may be geographically distant and yet feel as though they are proximally near [162].”

• cites [162] Marlow J, Dabbish L (2012) Designing interventions to reduce psychological distance in globally distributed teams. In: Proceedings of CSCW’12 companion. ACM, New York, pp 163–166 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

For loosely coupled work, some organizations choose to minimize interaction.

“In contrast, for loosely coupled work, some organizations choose to minimize interaction [104].”

• cites [104] Hertzum M, Pries-Heje J (2011) Is minimizing interaction a solution to cultural and maturity inequality in offshore outsourcing? In: Balancing sourcing and innovation in information systems development, pp 77–97Not checked — no full text of the source

Follow-the-sun requires additional oversight time to facilitate transfer of work from one team to another, including time to discuss arising issues.

“However, this technique requires additional oversight time to facilitate the transfer of work from one team to the other, including time to discuss arising issues [250].”

• cites [250] Treinen JJ, Miller-Frost SL (2006) Following the sun: case studies in global software development. IBM J Res Dev 45(4):773–783 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

For tightly coupled work, some organizations use extreme or radical collaboration setups in an enclosed environment to maximize communication and facilitate information flow.

“For tightly coupled work, some organizations choose to use extreme [161] or radical [246] collaboration setups where teams work in an enclosed environment in order to maximize communication and facilitate the flow of information.”

• cites [161] Mark G (2002) Extreme collaboration. Commun ACM 45(6):89–93 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [246] Teasley S, Covi L, Krishnan MS, Olson JS (2000) How does radical collocation help a team succeed? In: Proceedings of CSCW’00. ACM, New York, pp 339–346 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual teams face greater challenges managing dependencies because of spatial distance, temporal distance, and culture.

“Virtual teams face greater challenges when managing these dependencies as a result of distance, both spatial and temporal, and culture [72].”

• cites [72] Esbensen M, Bjørn P (2014) Routine and standardization in global software development. In: Proceedings of GROUP’14. ACM, New York, pp 12–23 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Strong and frequent interaction with other team members can create a sense of closeness independent of physical proximity.

“In fact, as people interact strongly and frequently with other team members, they can create a sense of closeness independent of physical proximity [214].”

• cites [214] Raymond E (1999) Homesteading the Noosphere, the Cathedral, and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary. O’Reilly & Associates, Sebastopol Calf sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Perceptions of proximity influence decision making in virtual teams.

“For example, perceptions of proximity are known to influence decision making in virtual teams [198].”

• cites [198] O’Neill TA, Hancock SE, Zivkov K, Larson NL, Law SJ (2016) Team decision making in virtual and face-to-face environments. Group Decis Negot 25(5):995–1020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Follow-the-sun methodologies, if used effectively, can result in efficient 24/7 productivity because work can be completed by one team member during another's off hours.

“Follow-the-sun methodologies, if used effectively, can result in efficient, 24/7 productivity since work can be completed by one team member during another's off hours [2,93,103].”

• cites [2] Ågerfalk PJ, Fitzgerald B, Holmstrom Olsson H, Lings B, Lundell B, Ó Conchúir E (2005) A framework for considering opportunities and threats in distributed software development. In: Proceedings of the of DiSD’05. Austrian Computer Society, pp 47–61 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [93] Grinter RE (2003) Recomposition: coordinating a web of software dependencies. J CSCW 12(3):297–327 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [103] Herbsleb JD, Mockus A, Finholt TA, Grinter RE (2000) Distance, dependencies, and delay in a global collaboration. In: Proceedings of CSCW’00. ACM, New York, pp 319–328 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Many organizations arrange for co-located team members to work on tightly coupled aspects while distance workers tackle loosely coupled parts, facilitated by deconstructing tasks into smaller pieces.

“To combat the challenges associated with relying on tightly coupled work, many organizations take a social approach that arranges for co-located team members to work on tightly coupled aspects of the project while distance workers tackle loosely coupled parts [64,193], facilitated by deconstructing tasks into smaller pieces [93].”

• cites [64] Dubé L, Robey D (2009) Surviving the paradoxes of virtual teamwork. ISJ 19(1):3–30 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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• cites [93] Grinter RE (2003) Recomposition: coordinating a web of software dependencies. J CSCW 12(3):297–327 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Careful division of work that accounts for separation by several time zones can mitigate some coordination issues.

“Additionally, some coordination issues can be mitigated by careful division of work which takes into account being separated by several time zones [49].”

• cites [49] Cummings JN (2011) Geography is alive and well in virtual teams. Commun ACM 54(8):24–26 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual leadership can help collaboration through training, guidance, resources, coaching, and relationship building.

“Virtual leadership can help collaboration within the team through providing training, guidance, resources, coaching, and facilitating relationship building [150].”

• cites [150] Liao C (2017) Leadership in virtual teams: a multilevel perspective. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):648–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Ensuring that team members give priority to the team's work is more challenging in geographically dispersed teams.

“It is also more challenging to ensure that the team's work is given priority by the team members in geographically dispersed teams [131].”

• cites [131] Kayworth TR, Leidner DE (2002) Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams. J Manag Inf Syst 18(3):7–40 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Effective leadership positively influences affection, cognition, and motivation.

“Furthermore, effective leadership can have a positive influence on affection, cognition, and motivation [150].”

• cites [150] Liao C (2017) Leadership in virtual teams: a multilevel perspective. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):648–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Management of team effort is one of the largest challenges faced by virtual teams.

“One of the largest challenges faced by virtual teams is the management of team effort [207].”

• cites [207] Pe narroja V, Orengo V, Zornoza A (2017) Reducing perceived social loafing in virtual teams: the effect of team feedback with guided reflexivity. J Appl Soc Psychol 47(8):424–435 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Effective communication is more critical for high performance in virtual teams for complex, tightly coupled tasks.

“As a result, effective communication is more critical for high performance in virtual teams for these tasks [163].”

• cites [163] Marlow SL, Lacerenza CN, Salas E (2017) Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual framework and research agenda. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):575–589 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Teams may miss the benefits of empowering leadership if they lack situational judgement.

“However, it is important to note that teams may miss out on the benefits provided by empowering leadership if they lack situational judgement [105]”

• cites [105] Hill NS, Bartol KM (2016) Empowering leadership and effective collaboration in geographically dispersed teams. Pers Psychol 69(1):159–198 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Explicit management by leaders trained in project management is needed for distributed collaborative work to ensure project success.

“Explicit management is needed for distributed, collaborative work, particularly by leaders trained in project management, in order to ensure the success of a project [150,193].”

• cites [150] Liao C (2017) Leadership in virtual teams: a multilevel perspective. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):648–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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High levels of consistent communication between leaders and team members are positively related to trust and engagement in virtual teams.

“High levels of consistent communication between leaders and team members is positively related to trust and engagement within virtual teams [80].”

• cites [80] Gajendran RS, Harrison DA, Delaney-Klinger K (2015) Are telecommuters remotely good citizens? Unpacking telecommuting’s effects on performance via i-deals and job resources. Pers Psychol 68(2):353–393 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

High empowering leadership positively influences team members' situational judgement about their virtual collaboration behaviors and ultimately their individual performance.

“High empowering leadership has the effect of positively influencing team members' situational judgement on their virtual collaboration behaviors and, ultimately, individual performance [105].”

• cites [105] Hill NS, Bartol KM (2016) Empowering leadership and effective collaboration in geographically dispersed teams. Pers Psychol 69(1):159–198 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Leadership benefits enhance virtual team effectiveness.

“These benefits, in turn enhance virtual team effectiveness [150].”

• cites [150] Liao C (2017) Leadership in virtual teams: a multilevel perspective. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):648–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Hierarchical leadership is less effective in geographically dispersed teams than in co-located teams.

“For example, Hoch and Kozlowski [111] found that hierarchical leadership is less effective in geographically dispersed teams than in co-located teams.”

• cites [111] Hoch JE, Kozlowski SW (2014) Leading virtual teams: hierarchical leadership, structural supports, and shared team leadership. J Appl Psychol 99(3):390 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Empowering leadership has a positive effect on team performance at high levels of team geographic dispersion.

“Moreover, empowering leadership has a positive effect on team performance at high levels of team geographic dispersion [105].”

• cites [105] Hill NS, Bartol KM (2016) Empowering leadership and effective collaboration in geographically dispersed teams. Pers Psychol 69(1):159–198 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Shared cognition can be developed through frequent, consistent use of video conferencing.

“Given the characteristics of CMC technologies like video conferencing, which preserve much of the nuances present in face-to-face communication, we posit that shared cognition can be developed through the frequent, consistent use of this medium for communication.”

A transformational leader's influence on team communication decreases as the team becomes more dispersed.

“In fact, a transformational leader's influence on team communication decreases as the team becomes more and more dispersed [69].”

• cites [69] Eisenberg J, Post C, DiTomaso N (2019) Team dispersion and performance: the role of team communication and transformational leadership. Small Group Res 50(3):348–380 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Emergent leadership has a positive relationship with virtual team performance.

“Emergent leadership has a positive relationship with virtual team performance [110].”

• cites [110] Hoch JE, Dulebohn JH (2017) Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: a theoretical framework. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):678–693 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

High task complexity combined with high virtuality leads to misunderstandings and mistakes.

“Furthermore, the combination of high task complexity and high levels of virtuality lends itself to misunderstandings and mistakes [163].”

• cites [163] Marlow SL, Lacerenza CN, Salas E (2017) Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual framework and research agenda. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):575–589 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Leadership benefits teams more when tasks are highly interdependent and/or highly complex.

“Leadership benefits the team more in an environment where tasks are highly interdependent and/or highly complex [150].”

• cites [150] Liao C (2017) Leadership in virtual teams: a multilevel perspective. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):648–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Imbalanced teams with one isolated collaborator and a co-located team function differently from highly dispersed, balanced teams.

“Imbalanced teams consisting of one isolated collaborator working with a co-located team function differently than highly dispersed, balanced teams [188].”

• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Isolated workers are more likely to feel a lack of motivational sense of the presence of others.

“Isolated workers are also more likely to feel the effects of a lack of motivational sense of the presence of others [193].”

• cites [193] Olson JS, Olson GM (2006) Bridging distance: empirical studies of distributed teams. In: Proceedings of human factors in MIS’06, vol 2, pp 27–30Not checked yet

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Geographically defined subgroups in virtual teams produce significantly negative coordination outcomes, such as difficulties with schedules, deadlines, and task assignments.

“They found that geographically defined subgroups led to significantly negative outcomes with regards to coordination problems (e.g., difficulties with coordination-related decisions about schedules, deadlines, and task assignments).”

• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In imbalanced teams with one isolated collaborator, communication differs because co-located members communicate face-to-face and electronically with each other but only electronically with the isolated member.

“For instance, communication in these imbalanced teams is different because the co-located team members communicate both face-to-face and electronically with each other, but, in the absence of travel, only communicate electronically with the isolated team member [231].”

• cites [231] Siebdrat F, Hoegl M, Ernst H (2014) Subjective distance and team collaboration in distributed teams. J Prod Innov Manag 31(4):765–779 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Shared leadership is facilitated by socially-related exchange of information that creates commitment, trust, and cohesion among team members.

“However, shared leadership is facilitated by the socially-related exchange of information that creates commitment, trust, and cohesion among team members [110].”

• cites [110] Hoch JE, Dulebohn JH (2017) Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: a theoretical framework. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):678–693 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Informal face-to-face communication is less common and feasible in virtual teams.

“However, this type of informal and face-to-face communication is less common and feasible in virtual teams for reasons that will be discussed later.”

The number of sites in a virtual team is inversely related to project success.

“There is an inverse relationship between the number of sites and project success [50,51,133].”

• cites [50] Cummings JN, Kiesler S (2005) Collaborative research across disciplinary and organizational boundaries. Soc Stud Sci 35(5):703–722 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [51] Cummings JN, Kiesler S (2007) Coordination costs and project outcomes in multi-university collaborations. RP 36(10):1620–1634 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [133] Kiesler S, Cummings JN (2002) What do we know about proximity and distance in work groups? A legacy of research. In: Distributed work, vol 1. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 57–80 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Isolated members tend to contribute more frequently than co-located counterparts because they feel they need to speak up and be heard.

“Also, isolated members tend to contribute more frequently than their co-located counterparts because they feel as though they need to 'speak up' and be 'heard' over the co-located team [141,188].”

• cites [141] Koehne B, Shih PC, Olson JS (2012) Remote and alone: coping with being the remote member on the team. In: Proceedings of CSCW’12. ACM, New York, pp 1257–1266 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In co-located teams, knowledge exchange is enabled through social interactions such as informal conversations, socializing outside work, and meetings.

“In co-located teams, this exchange of knowledge is enabled through social interactions like informal conversations, socializing outside of work, and through meetings [110].”

• cites [110] Hoch JE, Dulebohn JH (2017) Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: a theoretical framework. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):678–693 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Coordination in distance collaborations is hindered by difficulties in scheduling synchronous meetings due to limited common availability.

“Similarly, coordination in distance collaborations is hindered by difficulties in scheduling synchronous meetings due to limited windows of time where all parties are able to be present [83].”

• cites [83] Gibson CB, Gibbs JL (2006) Unpacking the concept of virtuality: the effects of geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, dynamic structure, and national diversity on team innovation. Adm Sci Q 51(3):451–495 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In imbalanced teams, larger subgroups feel stronger effects of faultlines on conflict and trust.

“In particular, larger subgroups in imbalanced teams feel stronger effects from faultlines on conflict and trust [210].”

• cites [210] Polzer JT, Crisp CB, Jarvenpaa SL, Kim JW (2006) Extending the faultline model to geographically dispersed teams: how colocated subgroups can impair group functioning. Acad Manag J 49(4):679–692 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Levels of conflict and trust differ between imbalanced and balanced teams.

“Furthermore, levels of conflict and trust differ between imbalanced and balanced teams [188,210].”

• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [210] Polzer JT, Crisp CB, Jarvenpaa SL, Kim JW (2006) Extending the faultline model to geographically dispersed teams: how colocated subgroups can impair group functioning. Acad Manag J 49(4):679–692 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Shared leadership has a positive influence on the performance of virtual teams.

“Shared leadership has a positive influence on the performance of virtual teams [110,150].”

• cites [110] Hoch JE, Dulebohn JH (2017) Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: a theoretical framework. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):678–693 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [150] Liao C (2017) Leadership in virtual teams: a multilevel perspective. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):648–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Among teams with less skilled members, centralized authority has a positive influence on efficiency and performance in virtual teams.

“Among teams with less skilled members, centralized authority (i.e., high authority differentiation) will have a positive influence on efficiency and performance in virtual teams [223].”

• cites [223] Schaubroeck JM, Yu A (2017) When does virtuality help or hinder teams? Core team characteristics as contingency factors. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):635–647 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A large number of sites increases the likelihood that demographic differences create divisions.

“Having a large number of sites, in particular, increases the odds that differences in demographics will create these divisions [47].”

• cites [47] Cramton CD, Hinds PJ (2004) Subgroup dynamics in internationally distributed teams: ethnocentrism or cross-national learning? Res Organ Behav 26:231–263 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In such teams, co-located members feel compelled to communicate more frequently with isolated collaborators to compensate.

“This also has a unique effect on communication where the co-located team feels compelled to communicate with those isolated collaborators more frequently to make up for this difference [188].”

• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Emergent leadership has a positive relationship to individual conscientiousness.

“In addition, emergent leadership has a positive relationship to individual conscientiousness, which is associated with being careful, responsible, and organized [110].”

• cites [110] Hoch JE, Dulebohn JH (2017) Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: a theoretical framework. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):678–693 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Distance hampers coordination of virtual teams via synchronous meetings.

“These results are complemented by findings that distance hampers the coordination of virtual teams via synchronous meetings [243].”

• cites [243] Tang JC, Zhao C, Cao X, Inkpen K (2011) Your time zone or mine? A study of globally time zone-shifted collaboration. In: Proceedings of CSCW’11. ACM, New York, pp 235–244 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A shared sense of team identity can reduce conflict.

“Conflict can be reduced by a shared sense of team identity [108,179], meaning that fostering this sense of identification with the team can mitigate both problems.”

• cites [108] Hinds PJ, Mortensen M (2005) Understanding conflict in geographically distributed teams: the moderating effects of shared identity, shared context, and spontaneous communication. Organ Sci 16(3):290–307 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [179] Mortensen M, Hinds PJ (2001) Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. Int J Confl Manag 12(3):212–238 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Isolation negatively affects a worker's awareness of collaborators' activities.

“Furthermore, isolation negatively affects a worker's awareness of collaborator's activities [187].”

• cites [187] O’Leary MB, Cummings JN (2007) The spatial, temporal, and configurational characteristics of geographic dispersion in teams. Manag Inf Syst Q 31(3):433–452 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Disparity in communication methods impedes informal interaction and spontaneous communication.

“This disparity in communication methods impedes informal interaction and spontaneous communication [45].”

• cites [45] Cooper CD, Kurland NB (2002) Telecommuting, professional isolation, and employee development in public and private organizations. J Organ Behav 23(4):511–532 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Imbalanced teams often have unequal contribution to shared team tasks.

“For example, imbalanced teams often have unequal amounts of contribution towards shared team tasks [188].”

• cites [188] O’Leary MB, Mortensen M (2010) Go (con) figure: subgroups, imbalance, and isolates in geographically dispersed teams. Organ Sci 21(1):115–131 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Shared and emergent leadership strengthen the relationships between team conscientiousness, emotional stability, and team openness more in teams with higher virtuality than in teams with lower virtuality.

“Specifically, these types of leadership will affect the relationships between team conscientiousness, emotional stability, and team openness such that they will be stronger in teams with higher levels of virtuality than in teams with lower levels of virtuality [110].”

• cites [110] Hoch JE, Dulebohn JH (2017) Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: a theoretical framework. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):678–693 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Decentralized authority combined with careful intervention of a formal or informal leader can benefit coordination, learning, and adaptation in virtual teams with high skill differentiation and high temporal stability.

“Decentralized authority (i.e., low authority differentiation) when combined with careful intervention of a formal or informal leader can benefit coordination, learning, and adaptation in virtual teams with high skill differentiation and high temporal stability [150].”

• cites [150] Liao C (2017) Leadership in virtual teams: a multilevel perspective. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):648–659 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Collectivist cultures prioritize team needs, beliefs, and goals over individual ones.

“Collectivist cultures place the needs, beliefs, and goals of the team over the those of an individual [94,112].”

• cites [94] Gudykunst WB (1997) Cultural variability in communication: an introduction. Commun Res 24(4):327–348 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [112] Hofstede G (1980) Culture’s consequence international differences in work-related values. Sage, Thousand OaksNot checked yet

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Individualist cultures prioritize individual needs, beliefs, and goals over team ones.

“In contrast to collectivist cultures, individualist cultures place the needs, beliefs, and goals of the individual over the those of an team [112].”

• cites [112] Hofstede G (1980) Culture’s consequence international differences in work-related values. Sage, Thousand OaksNot checked yet

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A virtual team with high national diversity may not necessarily be culturally diverse.

“Therefore, a virtual team with high national diversity may not necessarily be culturally diverse [86].”

• cites [86] Gibson CB, Huang L, Kirkman BL, Shapiro DL (2014) Where global and virtual meet: the value of examining the intersection of these elements in twenty-first-century teams. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 1(1):217–244 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Accuracy and similarity of mental models reduce the negative effect of complexity on teamwork behaviors.

“Accuracy and similarity play vital roles in reducing the negative effect of complexity on teamwork behaviors [226].”

• cites [226] Schmidtke JM, Cummings A (2017) The effects of virtualness on teamwork behavioral components: the role of shared mental models. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):660–677 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Japan, a high-context culture, relies more on indirect communication via contextual cues.

“For example, Japan, a high-context culture, relies more on the use of indirect communication via contextual cues (e.g., body language) to convey information [139].”

• cites [139] Kittler MG, Rygl D, Mackinnon A (2011) Special review article: beyond culture or beyond control? Reviewing the use of Hall’s high-/low-context concept. Int J Cross Cult Manag 11(1):63–82 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A virtual team's cultural composition is the key predictor of team performance.

“For this and other reasons, virtual team's cultural composition is the key predictor of the team's performance [242].”

• cites [242] Swigger K, Alpaslan F, Brazile R, Monticino M (2004) Effects of culture on computer-supported international collaborations. Int J Hum Comput Stud 60(3):365–380 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Establishing common ground is of utmost importance to virtual teams.

“Thus, the establishment of common ground is of utmost importance to virtual teams.”

Nation is not the only meaningful source of culture.

“However, nation is not the only meaningful source of culture [84,149].”

• cites [84] Gibson CB, McDaniel DM (2010) Moving beyond conventional wisdom: advancements in cross-cultural theories of leadership, conflict, and teams. Perspect Psychol Sci 5(4):450–462 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [149] Leung K, Bhagat R, Buchan N, Erez M, Gibson C (2011) Beyond national culture and culture-centricism: an integrating perspective on the role of culture in international business. J Int Bus Stud 42:177–181 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Geographically dispersed virtual teams have more difficulty developing a shared mental model.

“Research [168] has shown that it is more difficult for virtual teams that are geographically dispersed to develop a shared mental model.”

• cites [168] Maynard MT, Gilson LL (2014) The role of shared mental model development in understanding virtual team effectiveness. Group Organ Manag 39(1):3–32 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Collectivist virtual teams are less likely to use CMC technologies.

“Virtual teams characterized by collectivist culture are less likely to use CMC technologies [143].”

• cites [143] Kramer WS, Shuffler ML, Feitosa J (2017) The world is not flat: examining the interactive multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in teams. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):604–620 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When collectivist teams adopt CMC, they tend to choose synchronous methods with high relationship-related informational value.

“When they do choose to adopt CMC technologies, collectivist teams tend to choose synchronous methods that provide high relationship-related informational value [143].”

• cites [143] Kramer WS, Shuffler ML, Feitosa J (2017) The world is not flat: examining the interactive multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in teams. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):604–620 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Grounding is more difficult when the risk of misinterpretation is higher, such as with multiple cultural practices and languages.

“In particular, the process of grounding is made more difficult when there is a higher risk of misinterpretation, such as in the presence of multiple cultural practices and languages [191].”

• cites [191] Olson GM, Olson JS (2000) Distance matters. Hum Comput Interact 15(2):139–178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The extent to which virtual team members share common goals is critical to team success.

“In addition to this, the extent to which virtual team members share common goals is critical in determining the success of the team [42,230].”

• cites [42] Choi OK, Cho E (2019) The mechanism of trust affecting collaboration in virtual teams and the moderating roles of the culture of autonomy and task complexity. Comput Hum Behav 91:305–315 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [230] See M (2018) 18 international collaboration: are the challenges worth the benefits? J Anim Sci 96(suppl–3):2–2Not checked yet

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Variation of cultural values within a country may be higher than variation between countries.

“In fact, variation of cultural values within a country may be higher than variation between countries [114].”

• cites [114] Hofstede G (2001) Culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage, Thousand OaksNot checked yet

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Specialized training can increase mental model accuracy.

“Fortunately, specialized training can increase mental model accuracy [226].”

• cites [226] Schmidtke JM, Cummings A (2017) The effects of virtualness on teamwork behavioral components: the role of shared mental models. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):660–677 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The individualistic-collectivist dichotomy results in some cultures being more open to geographically dispersed work due to self-efficacy beliefs about virtual teamwork.

“Hardin et al. [98] found that the individualistic-collectivist dichotomy results in some cultures being more open to working in geographically dispersed environments due to their levels of self-efficacy beliefs about virtual teamwork.”

• cites [98] Hardin AM, Fuller MA, Davison RM (2007) I know i can, but can we? Culture and efficacy beliefs in global virtual teams. Small Group Res 38(1):130–155 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

As virtualness increases, similarity and accuracy of mental models decrease.

“They also found that as virtualness increases, similarity and accuracy of mental models decreases [226].”

• cites [226] Schmidtke JM, Cummings A (2017) The effects of virtualness on teamwork behavioral components: the role of shared mental models. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):660–677 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The individualism-collectivism dichotomy contributes to high socio-cultural distance.

“The individualism-collectivism dichotomy is a 'major dimension of cultural variability' [112] that contributes to high socio-cultural distance.”

• cites [112] Hofstede G (1980) Culture’s consequence international differences in work-related values. Sage, Thousand OaksNot checked yet

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Vertical collectivist teams are more likely to employ asynchronous methods.

“They are also more likely to employ asynchronous methods [143].”

• cites [143] Kramer WS, Shuffler ML, Feitosa J (2017) The world is not flat: examining the interactive multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in teams. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):604–620 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

As virtualness increases, mental models become more complex, negatively affecting teamwork.

“Schmidtke and Cummings [226] found that as virtualness increases in a team, mental models become more complex, which negatively affects teamwork.”

• cites [226] Schmidtke JM, Cummings A (2017) The effects of virtualness on teamwork behavioral components: the role of shared mental models. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):660–677 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual team members with different cultural backgrounds likely have different behaviors, including how they interact with teammates.

“Members of a virtual team with different cultural backgrounds are likely to have different behaviors within the teams, including how they interact with their teammates [123].”

• cites [123] Jarvenpaa SL, Leidner DE (1998) Communication and trust in global virtual teams. JCMC 3(4):791–815 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Team members from individualistic cultures may be more ready to trust other teammates when communicating via technology than team members from collectivist cultures.

“This observation indicates that team members from individualistic cultures may be more ready to trust other teammates when communicating via technology than team members from collectivist cultures [123].”

• cites [123] Jarvenpaa SL, Leidner DE (1998) Communication and trust in global virtual teams. JCMC 3(4):791–815 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

High temporal stability is associated with positive team outcomes including adaptation, learning, innovation, performance, satisfaction, and identification.

“High temporal stability is associated with positive team outcomes related to related to adaptation, learning, innovation, and performance, as well as satisfaction and identification with the team [223].”

• cites [223] Schaubroeck JM, Yu A (2017) When does virtuality help or hinder teams? Core team characteristics as contingency factors. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):635–647 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Computer-mediated communication technology can reduce the negative effects of socio-cultural diversity early in a diverse virtual team's life.

“Computer-mediated communication technology (e.g., email, video-conferencing) can reduce the negative effects of socio-cultural diversity early on in the life of a diverse virtual team due to their reductive capabilities [32].”

• cites [32] Carte T, Chidambaram L (2004) A capabilities-based theory of technology deployment in diverse teams: leapfrogging the pitfalls of diversity and leveraging its potential with collaborative technology. J Assoc Inf Syst 5(11):4 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Heterogeneity in discomfort with the unknown has a positive effect on issue-based conflict.

“In a similar vein, heterogeneity in the extent to which there is discomfort with the unknown has a positive effect on issue-based conflict [70].”

• cites [70] Elron E (1997) Top management teams within multinational corporations: effects of cultural heterogeneity. Leadersh Q 8(4):393–412 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Heterogeneity in traditional gender roles is positively related to team performance.

“For example, heterogeneity in the extent to which gender roles are traditional is positively related to team performance [70].”

• cites [70] Elron E (1997) Top management teams within multinational corporations: effects of cultural heterogeneity. Leadersh Q 8(4):393–412 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

High specificity teams are more likely to rely on CMC than diffuse teams.

“This affects the choice communication methods employed by the team as teams characterized by high specificity are more likely to rely on CMC technologies than diffuse teams [143].”

• cites [143] Kramer WS, Shuffler ML, Feitosa J (2017) The world is not flat: examining the interactive multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in teams. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):604–620 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Individuals from affective cultures such as Italy commonly exhibit emotions publicly.

“For example, individuals from affective cultures such as Italy commonly exhibit their emotions publicly.[143].”

• cites [143] Kramer WS, Shuffler ML, Feitosa J (2017) The world is not flat: examining the interactive multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in teams. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):604–620 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Religious differences can make it difficult to understand norms and traditions, negatively influencing collaboration.

“Religious differences, for example, can make it difficult for team members to understand each others norms and traditions, which has a negative influence on collaboration [221].”

• cites [221] Saunders C, Van Slyke C, Vogel DR (2004) My time or yours? Managing time visions in global virtual teams. Acad Manag Perspect 18(1):19–37 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Culturally heterogeneous virtual teams outperform culturally homogeneous teams during the later part of the project life-cycle.

“Culturally heterogeneous virtual teams will outperform culturally homogeneous teams during the later part of the project life-cycle [264].”

• cites [264] Watson WE, Kumar K, Michaelsen LK (1993) Cultural diversity’s impact on interaction process and performance: comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Acad Manag J 36(3):590–602 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When collaborators need synchronous teleconferencing, non-native English speakers can become overwhelmed keeping up.

“This situation causes problems when collaborators need to synchronously communicate via teleconferencing-these team members can become overwhelmed with trying to keep up with the conversation [132,219].”

• cites [132] Kiel L (2003) Experiences in distributed development: a case study. In: Proceedings of international workshop on global software development at ICSE’03Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [219] Sarker S, Sahay S (2004) Implications of space and time for distributed work: an interpretive study of US–Norwegian systems development teams. Eur J Inf Syst 13(1):3–20 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There is a vicious cycle between differences in belief and intra-group conflict that is detrimental to collaboration.

“Thus, there is a vicious cycle between differences in belief and intra-group conflict that is detrimental to collaboration.”

In many global collaborations, some or all collaborators speak English as a second language.

“In many global collaborations, some (if not all) of the collaborators only speak English as a second language [132,219].”

• cites [132] Kiel L (2003) Experiences in distributed development: a case study. In: Proceedings of international workshop on global software development at ICSE’03Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [219] Sarker S, Sahay S (2004) Implications of space and time for distributed work: an interpretive study of US–Norwegian systems development teams. Eur J Inf Syst 13(1):3–20 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The effect of sociocultural diversity depends on other team features such as interaction length, types of diversity investigated, and types of outcomes under scrutiny.

“The effect of sociocultural diversity depends on other features of the team [272], such as how long members have interacted, the types of diversity investigated, and the types of outcomes under scrutiny [86].”

• cites [272] Zellmer-Bruhn ME, Gibson CB (2013) How does culture matter. In: Yuki M, Brewer M (eds) Culture and group processes, p 166. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=DtI8BAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA166&dq=Zellmer-Bruhn+ME,+Gibson+CB+(2013)+How+does+culture+matter.+In:+Culture+and+group+processes,+p+166&ots=wE-qqLV173&sig=svs8MQKVi40vMB_fixB86FyRmdQ#v=onepage&q&f=false sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [86] Gibson CB, Huang L, Kirkman BL, Shapiro DL (2014) Where global and virtual meet: the value of examining the intersection of these elements in twenty-first-century teams. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 1(1):217–244 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The degree of inequality among virtual team members affects communication tool choice.

“In addition to this, the degree of inequality that exists among members of virtual teams has an affect on the tools chosen for communication [143].”

• cites [143] Kramer WS, Shuffler ML, Feitosa J (2017) The world is not flat: examining the interactive multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in teams. Hum Resour Manag Rev 27(4):604–620 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Language challenges occur even among native speakers due to dialects and accents.

“This challenge is not just a matter of different languages, even native speakers of one language may have problems because of differences in dialects and local accents [33].”