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The functional neuroanatomy of depression: Distinct roles for ventromedial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Open accessAbstract
A primary aim in the neuroscientific study of depression is to identify the brain areas involved in the pathogenesis of symptoms. In this review, we describe evidence from studies employing various experimental approaches in humans (functional imaging, lesion method, and brain stimulation) that converge to implicate the ventromedial and dorsolateral sectors of prefrontal cortex as critical neural substrates for depression, albeit with distinct functional contributions. The putative roles of ventromedial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in depression are discussed in light of the results.
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“Consistent with the original FDA label, rTMS for MDD most commonly targets the left hemisphere DLPFC, a key node in the functional pathophysiology thought to underlie depressive symptoms (21).”
From Adaptive trial for the treatment of depressive symptoms associated with concussion using accelerated intermittent theta burst stimulation (ADEPT): rationale, design and methods (2025) · cites this paper as [21]
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“Furthermore, damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex has been associated with emotional deficits including diminished guilt (Koenigs & Grafman, 2009)”
From A novel resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging signature of resilience to recurrent depression (2017) · cites this paper as Koenigs & Grafman, 2009
In the citing paper
“Substantial evidence indicates that mPFC dysfunction plays a critical role in the pathology of major depressive disorder (MDD) 203.”
From Mechanisms of synaptic transmission dysregulation in the prefrontal cortex: pathophysiological implications (2022) · cites this paper as [203]
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“One recent review of brain function in depression [71] concluded that depression is typified by hypoactivation in dorsolateral PFC (including dorsal ACC), as well as hyperactivation in ventromedial PFC (including subgenual ACC).”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [71]
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“Research efforts aimed at understanding the neural circuits underlying depression have been mainly devoted to the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and mesolimbic structures [12, 55, 56].”
From Chronic unpredictable stress induces depression-related behaviors by suppressing AgRP neuron activity (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
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Cites
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“…to spine loss, neuronal atrophy) within and between prefrontal and limbic structures, which are thought to contribute to cognitive and emotional deficits (anhedonia, negative affect), attention biases and impaired decision-making (Arnsten, 2009; Koenigs and Grafman, 2009; Price and Drevets, 2012).”
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“hot and cold executive functions, thus supporting the view that both processes are implicated in mental health (Koenigs and Grafman, 2009).”
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“Based on previous emotion regulation research relevant to the avoidance and suppression of emotion (Davidson et al., 2002; Aron et al., 2004; Ochsner et al., 2004; Ochsner and Gross, 2005; Koenigs and Grafman, 2009), we also predicted that depressed patients would show altered levels of activity in a number of left an…”
A 1H-NMR plasma metabonomic study of acute and chronic stress models of depression in rats
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Frontal EEG alpha band asymmetry as a predictor of reasoning deficiency in depressed people
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“This trend is probably due to the different roles that those regions play in behaviour regulation, with DLPFC essential for more “cognitive” aspects of behaviour, while VMPFC parts are connected to “emotional” aspects of information processing (Koenigs & Grafman, 2009).”
BackgroundEffects of Serial Ketamine Infusions on Corticolimbic Functional Connectivity in Major Depression
Vasavada, M. M., Loureiro, J. R., Kubicki, A., Sahib, A. K., Wade, B., Hellemann, G., Espinoza, R. T., Congdon, E. L., Narr, K. L., & Leaver, A. M. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.06.015 · Cited by 51
“Taken together, rsfMRI studies support the theory that MDD is associated with an imbalance between hyperactive ventral and hypoactive dorsal corticolimbic systems (28 – 30).”
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“…subjects have also been found to have structural and/or functional abnormalities (Fales et al., 2009; Frodl et al., 2002; Kennedy et al., 2007; Koenigs & Grafman, 2009; Lozano et al., 2008; Mayberg et al., 1999; Pizzagalli, 2011; Sheline et al., 2001; Sprengelmeyer et al., 2011) as well as…”
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“Direct activation of the dlPFC using repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation is an effective treatment for depression [71], presumably because of a resultant strengthening of network connections responsible for executive control of emotion [72,73].”
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Desynchronization and Plasticity of Striato-frontal Connectivity in Major Depressive Disorder
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“…data lend further support to the hypothesis that depression involves an imbalance between hyporesponsive dorsal and hyperresponsive ventral structures (Mayberg 1997; Drevets 2000; Koenigs and Grafman 2009) and place new emphasis on a key structure involved in that imbalance, the ventral striatum.”
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“Evidence from functional brain imaging and lesion and neurostimulation research indicates that the dorsolateral and ventromedial areas of prefrontal cortex are critical neural substrates that make distinct functional contributions to affective information processing in people with depression CONTACT Sean Brennan brenn…”
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“mPFC activity and depressive symptoms in youths and adults (36, 37).”
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“Depression-like behavior is related to neurobiological responses in the brain, and the PFC is important in the development and treatment of depression [12].”
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“…hyperactive in depression, along with hyperconnec-tivity to other parts of the DMN observed with PETscans and with fMRI (Liston et al., 2014; Mayberg et al., 2005), and a decrease in activity of the sgACC is associated with anti-depressant response (Koenigs and Grafman, 2009; Mayberg et al., 2005).”
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“Chronic pain patients are commonly comorbid for depressive and anxiety disorders(58) that are heavily correlated with PFC abnormal functioning.(33,51) As a central mediator in the pain pathway, therapeutic mechanisms targeting PFC may have efficacy across different pain disorders and simultaneously address associated…”
BackgroundResting State Functional Connectivity Biomarkers of Treatment Response in Mood Disorders: A Review
Taylor, J. J., Kurt, H. G., & Anand, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.565136 · Cited by 50
“Numerous PET studies have shown decreased blood flow and oxygen consumption in depression (91), including some that specifically link cognitive symptoms of depression to DLPFC dysfunction (92, 93).”
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“4) 61 (7) 64 (6) Median follow-up duration, months (range) 33 (24-58) 40 (24-56) 44 (26-58) Median disease duration, years (range) 3 (0.”
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“∙ The dorsolateral, ventrolateral and medial prefrontal cortices, which are involved in attentional processes, working memory and in decision making (29).”
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White Matter Indices of Medication Response in Major Depression: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study
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“lesion patients and patients with psychopathy or depression [43,44,45] and might be linked with specific processing deficits at one of these levels of fairness considerations.”
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Resilience and amygdala function in older healthy and depressed adults
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“Amygdala hyperactivity is thought to be reflective of overall hyperactivity within ventral limbic circuits in depression and anxiety, perhaps responsible for generating negative affect and/or mood (Mayberg 1997; Drevets 2000; Koenigs and Grafman 2009).”
BackgroundPain Asymbolia as Depersonalization for Pain Experience. An Interoceptive Active Inference Account
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Maiella, M., Casula, E. P., Borghi, I., Assogna, M., D’Acunto, A., Pezzopane, V., Mencarelli, L., Rocchi, L., Pellicciari, M. C., & Koch, G. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-23040-z · Cited by 46
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BackgroundPrefrontal Cortical Deficits in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
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“Interestingly, the prefrontal region may subserve an explicit role in regulating emotion; therefore, these regional alterations have long been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression.(25-30) Considering that the age at depression onset is often later than the age at diabetes diagnosis in patients with T1DM,(31…”
Ginsenoside Rg1 alleviates corticosterone-induced dysfunction of gap junctions in astrocytes
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Integration of GWAS and brain eQTL identifies FLOT1 as a risk gene for major depressive disorder
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“This disruption in neurodevelopment may further increase susceptibility for impaired cognitive and motor function as well as psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders.(38,39) f”
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“To determine a possible mechanism for the strong repression of connexin genes, we examined the PFC, a region canonically implicated in depression (Koenigs and Grafman, 2009) that is strongly associated with the subcortical regions (Mega and Cummings, 1994) examined in this study.”
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“…the DLPFC is primarily associated with “cognitive” or “executive” functions, whereas VMPFC is largely associated with “emotional” or “affective” functions (Koenigs & Grafman, 2009), suggesting that cognition and emotion, which are seriously malfunctioned in MD, are associated with altered…”
BackgroundContent specificity of attentional bias to threat in post-traumatic stress disorder
Zinchenko, A., Al-Amin, M. M., Alam, M. M., Mahmud, W., Kabir, N., Reza, H. M., & Burne, T. H. J. (2017) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.05.006 · Cited by 44
Effect of Hypoxic Injury in Mood Disorder
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“The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a crucial nerve center of thinking and behavior regulation in the brain [72] and is divided into two subregions: ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) for regulating the affection and dorsolateral sectors (dlPFC) for mediating the cognitive functions [73, 74].”
BackgroundDysregulation of threat neurocircuitry during fear extinction: the role of anhedonia
Young, K. S., Bookheimer, S. Y., Nusslock, R., Zinbarg, R. E., Damme, K. S. F., Chat, I. K.-Y., Kelley, N. J., Vinograd, M., Perez, M., Chen, K. S., et al. (2021) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01003-8 · Cited by 41
Huang, X., Huang, P., Li, D., Zhang, Y., Wang, T., Mu, J., Li, Q., & Xie, P. (2014) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.10.011 · Cited by 43
Sensorimotor Modulation of Mood and Depression: In Search of an Optimal Mode of Stimulation
Canbeyli, R. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00428 · Cited by 42
“…nucleus accumbens, and the basal ganglia (Mayberg, 1997; Soares and Mann, 1997; Ongur et al., 1998; Tekin and Cummings, 2002; Heimer, 2003; Phillips et al., 2003a,b; Heimer and Van Hoesen, 2006; Drevets et al., 2008; Koenigs and Grafman, 2009; Lorenzetti et al., 2009; Preskorn and Drevets, 2009).”
BackgroundSalience Network Functional Connectivity Predicts Placebo Effects in Major Depression
Sikora, M., Heffernan, J., Avery, E. T., Mickey, B. J., Zubieta, J.-K., & Peciña, M. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2015.10.002 · Cited by 85
“Finally, MDD is characterized by reduced functional connectivity of the EN (4) and hypo-activation of the network’s key node: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) (41).”
BackgroundPloski, J. E., & Vaidya, V. A. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.04.009 · Cited by 46
Neural plasticity and depression treatment
Wang, Y., Song, N., Ding, Y., & Zhang, L. (2022) · IBRO Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ibneur.2022.09.001 · Cited by 48
“Hyperactivity in the vmPFC and hypoactivity in the dlPFC were found during progression of depression, but after psychotherapy or medication, the situation in both subregions was reversed (Koenigs and Grafman, 2009; Mayberg et al., 2005).”
BackgroundFrontal Alpha Asymmetry Correlates with Suicidal Behavior in Major Depressive Disorder
Park, Y., Jung, W., Kim, S., Jeon, H. T., & Lee, S. (2019) · Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience · doi:10.9758/cpn.2019.17.3.377 · Cited by 42
Yoshino, Y., Roy, B., Kumar, N., Mukhtar, M. S., & Dwivedi, Y. (2021) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-01159-9 · Cited by 44
Working memory training improves emotional states of healthy individuals
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Nouchi, R., Hashizume, H., Sekiguchi, A., Kotozaki, Y., Nakagawa, S., Miyauchi, C. M., Sassa, Y., & Kawashima, R. (2014) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00200 · Cited by 49
“DLPFC lesions have been shown to cause apathy and greater vulnerability to fatigue and depression compared with other lesions (Fuster, 2006; Koenigs and Grafman, 2009), and structural abnormalities in DLPFC to premotor areas are associated with fatigue (Chaudhuri and Behan, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, T., Huang, X., Huang, P., Li, D., Lv, F., Zhang, Y., Zhou, L., Yang, D., & Xie, P. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063081 · Cited by 40
“The medial dorsal thalamus nucleus reciprocally connects to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) [38].”
BackgroundMultimodal Brain Connectivity Analysis in Unmedicated Late-Life Depression
Tadayonnejad, R., Yang, S., Kumar, A., & Ajilore, O. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096033 · Cited by 42
“Unlike sgACC, hypoactivity in DLPFC has been found during the depressive period [51].”
BackgroundSong, Z., Zhang, M., & Huang, P. (2016) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2016.81 · Cited by 41
EEG Phase Synchronization in Persons With Depression Subjected to Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Zuchowicz, U., Woźniak-Kwaśniewska, A., Székely, D. L., Olejarczyk, E., & Olivier David, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.01037 · Cited by 43
“The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), identified as clinically effective in resistant depression treatment, is an area which ismainly targeted in rTMS therapy at a frequency of 10Hz (Koenigs and Grafman, 2009; Wozniak-Kwaśniewska et al., 2014, 2015).”
BackgroundDepressive symptom trajectories associated with standard and accelerated rTMS
Kaster, T. S., Chen, L., Daskalakis, Z. J., Hoy, K. E., Blumberger, D. M., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2020) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2020.02.021 · Cited by 44
“This work provides further confirmatory evidence that there are distinct depressive symptom response trajectories with rTMS delivered to the left DLPFC. Australian new zealand clinical trials registry: ACTRN12616000443493 and ACTRN12613000044729.”
InfluentialQin, J., Wei, M., Liu, H., Chen, J., Yan, R., Yao, Z., & Lü, Q. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.03.059 · Cited by 40
“, SN, DMN and FPN) (Hamilton et al., 2013; Koenigs and Grafman, 2009; Qin et al., 2014; Sambataro et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2013; Zeng et al., 2012).”
BackgroundYin, Y., He, X., Xu, M., Hou, Z., Song, X., Sui, Y., Liu, Z., Jiang, W., Yue, Y., Zhang, Y., et al. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep37617 · Cited by 43
Owens, M. M., Hyatt, C. S., Gray, J. C., Carter, N. T., MacKillop, J. M., Miller, J. D., & Sweet, L. H. (2019) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsz017 · Cited by 44
“is thought to play a key role in depression (Koenigs and Grafman, 2009), which many empirical approaches to mental illness consider to be underlain by the trait of neuroticism (Kotov et al.”
BackgroundNissen, A., & Krampe, C. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106809 · Cited by 40
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome and Brain: An Update on Structural and Functional Studies
Saydam, B. Ö., & Yıldız, B. O. (2020) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa843 · Cited by 39
Feature-level fusion based on spatial-temporal of pervasive EEG for depression recognition
Zhang, B., Wei, D., Yan, G., Lei, T., Cai, H., & Yang, Z. (2022) · Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2022.107113 · Cited by 39
Neurocognitive Changes and Their Neural Correlates in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Lee, J. H., Choi, Y., Jun, C. S., Hong, Y. S., Cho, H. B., Kim, J. E., & Lyoo, I. K. (2014) · Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.3803/enm.2014.29.2.112 · Cited by 43
Correlation between Traits of Emotion-Based Impulsivity and Intrinsic Default-Mode Network Activity
Zhao, J., Tomasi, D. G., Wiers, C. E., Kojori, E. S., Demiral, Ş. B., Zhang, Y., Volkow, N. D., & Wang, G. (2017) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2017/9297621 · Cited by 42
“DLPFC is connected with premotor areas, lateral parietal cortex, and thalamus [57, 58], which are areas associated with cognitive control and executive function [59].”
Patience, J., Lai, K. S. P., Russell, E., Vasudev, A., Montero‐Odasso, M., & Burhan, A. M. (2019) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2019.07.007 · Cited by 39
Fu, Y., Long, Z., Luo, Q., Xu, Z., Xiang, Y., Du, W., Cao, Y., Cheng, X., & Du, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.645936 · Cited by 38
Omega-3 fatty acids and stress-induced changes to mood and cognition in healthy individuals
Giles, G. E., Mahoney, C. R., Urry, H. L., Brunyé, T. T., Taylor, H. A., & Kanarek, R. B. (2015) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2015.02.018 · Cited by 40
Impaired interhemispheric synchrony in Parkinson’s disease with depression
Zhu, Y., Song, X., Xu, M., Hu, X., Erfeng, L., Liu, J., Yuan, Y., Gao, J., & Liu, W. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep27477 · Cited by 38
Stoyanov, D., Kandilarova, S., Borgwardt, S., Stieglitz, R., Hugdahl, K., & Kostianev, S. S. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00021 · Cited by 38
Transcranial direct current stimulation: A novel approach in the treatment of vascular depression
Zanardi, R., Poletti, S., Prestifilippo, D., Attanasio, F., Barbini, B., & Colombo, C. (2020) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2020.08.013 · Cited by 36
“Neurostimulation strategies have been proposed as treatment of depression trying to cope with functional abnormalities in cortical regions such as dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) [10] acting on altered neuroplasticity [11,12].”
BackgroundCotovio, G., da Silva, D. R., Real-Lage, E., Seybert, C., & Oliveira-Maia, A. J. (2022) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2022.01.137 · Cited by 37
Sampaio, L. A. N. P. C., Fráguas, R., Lotufo, P. A., Benseñor, I. M., & Brunoni, A. R. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00087 · Cited by 38
McOmish, C. E., Pavey, G., Gibbons, A. S., Hopper, S., Udawela, M., Scarr, E., & Dean, B. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.10.004 · Cited by 38
Kuniishi, H., Ichisaka, S., Matsuda, S., Futora, E., Harada, R., & Hata, Y. (2017) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00250 · Cited by 34
Neural correlates of negative emotion processing in subthreshold depression
Zhang, S., Zhang, Y., Ma, W., Qi, Z., Wang, Y., & Tao, Q. (2022) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsac003 · Cited by 39
“Accordingly, prior research has shown that abnormalities in the DLPFC are implicated in the pathology of depression (Koenigs and Grafman, 2009).”
Leem, Y., Yoon, S. S., Kim, Y.-H., & Jo, S. A. (2014) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2014.08.001 · Cited by 37
Signaling Pathways Involved in Antidepressant-Induced Cell Proliferation and Synaptic Plasticity
Pilar-Cuéllar, F., Vidal, R., Díaz, Á., Castro, E., Dos-Anjos, S., Vargas, V. I., Romero, B., & Valdizán, E. M. (2014) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/13816128113196660736 · Cited by 37
Generalized anxiety modulates frontal and limbic activation in major depression
Schlund, M. W., Verduzco, G., Cataldo, M. F., & Hoehn‐Saric, R. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/1744-9081-8-8 · Cited by 37
“First, the relatively consistent pattern of hypoactivation seen in the MDD/GAD group in medial and middle frontal regions as well as in the anterior cingulate, cingulate and insula is generally consistent with prior findings demonstrating frontal-limbic dysfunction in depression [2-4].”
BackgroundResultBarrash, J., Stuss, D. T., Aksan, N. S., Anderson, S. W., Jones, R., Manzel, K. W., & Tranel, D. (2018) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.05.007 · Cited by 38
Bernstein, H., Klix, M., Dobrowolny, H., Brisch, R., Steiner, J. H., Bielau, H., Gos, T., & Bogerts, B. (2012) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-012-0300-4 · Cited by 37
Bahrani, S., Zargar, F., Yousefipour, G., & Akbari, H. (2017) · Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal · doi:10.5812/ircmj.44566 · Cited by 36
“Nonetheless, the frontal and prefrontal regions dysfunction is observed in patients experiencing depression (44).”
BackgroundA theory of the neural mechanisms underlying negative cognitive bias in major depression
Jiang, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1348474 · Cited by 43
Metadata
- Authors
- Koenigs, M., & Grafman, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Koenigs, Michael
- Venue
- Behavioural Brain Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-08
- Volume
- 201
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 239-243
- ISSN
- 0166-4328 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2680780
- OpenAlex
- W2156809536
- Cited by
- 956
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 88 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 77 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 41 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 2.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Behavioural Brain Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (Z01NS002792)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- depression, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, prefrontal cortex, functional neuroanatomy, brain lesions, transcranial magnetic stimulation, functional imaging
- MeSH terms
- Brain Mapping, Depression, Depressive Disorder, Humans, Prefrontal Cortex, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
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