Parenting-related stress and psychological distress in mothers of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders
Open accessAbstract
Background Parents of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are at risk for higher stress levels than parents of children with other developmental disabilities and typical development. Recent advances in early diagnosis have resulted in younger children being diagnosed with ASDs but factors associated with parent stress in this age group are not well understood.Aims The present study examined parenting-related stress and psychological distress in mothers of toddlers with ASD, developmental delay without ASD (DD), and typical development. The impact of child problem behavior and daily living skills on parenting-stress and psychological distress were further investigated.Methods Participants were part of a larger research study on early ASD intervention.Results Parent self-report of parenting-related stress and psychological distress was utilized. Parents of toddlers with ASD demonstrated increased parenting-related stress compared with parents of toddlers with DD and typical development. However, psychological distress did not differ significantly between the groups. Child behavior problems, but not daily living skills emerged as a significant predictor of parenting-related stress and psychological distress. This was true for both mothers of children with ASD and DD.Conclusions These finding suggest that parents' abilities to manage and reduce behavior problems is a critical target for interventions for young children with ASD and DD in order to improve child functioning and decrease parenting-related stress.
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Parents of children with developmental disabilities are more likely to experience high stress and mental health problems.
“Parents of children with developmental disabilities are susceptible to mental health problems.”
From The Effect of Mindfulness-Based and Acceptance Commitment Therapy-Based Interventions to Improve the Mental Well-Being Among Parents of Children with Developmental Disabilities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. (2022) · cites this paper as Estes et al. 2012
The introductory passage says parents of children with ASD may be at increased risk of depression and anxiety, and the Discussion links child behavior problems to stress and psychological distress in mothers of children with ASD and non-ASD developmental delays. But the study found no significant difference in psychological distress between those mothers and mothers of typically developing toddlers. It therefore does not establish a generally higher risk of mental health problems for parents of children with developmental disabilities. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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“Our finding of poor child daily living skills predicting mental health difficulties, over and above the effect of ID, adds to the existing mixed evidence (Estes et al. 2013; Green and Carter 2014) and may be due to the age of the children in our sample.”
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Pre-symptomatic intervention for autism spectrum disorder (ASD): defining a research agenda
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Self-citationBoshoff, K., Gibbs, D., Phillips, R. L., Wiles, L., & Porter, L. L. (2018) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.12691 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
The relationship between chronic paediatric feeding disorders and caregiver stress
Silverman, A. H., Erato, G., & Goday, P. S. (2020) · Journal of Child Health Care · doi:10.1177/1367493520905381 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Parents of children with autism (Estes et al., 2009, 2013) and other developmental conditions also report higher stress levels (Miodrag and Hodapp, 2010; Moran et al., 1992; Schwarz and Children, 2003).”
BackgroundMindfulness-based stress reduction for parents implementing early intervention for Autism: An RCT
Weitlauf, A. S., Broderick, N., Stainbrook, J. A., Taylor, J. L., Herrington, C. G., Nicholson, A. G., Santulli, M., Dykens, E. M., Juárez, A. P., & Warren, Z. E. (2020) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-1895k · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“90 000 12 (39) 10 (33) Did not answer 1 (3) 3 (10) Highest educational attainment, n (%) High school graduate or general equivalency diploma 4 (13) 5 (17) Some college or technical school 5 (16) 8 (27) Associate’s degree 2 (7) 2 (6) Bachelor’s degree 12 (39) 5 (17) Some postgraduate education 1 (3) 2 (6) Graduate degr…”
BackgroundJellett, R., Wood, C., Giallo, R., & Seymour, M. (2014) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1111/cp.12047 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Studies have shown that behaviour problems predict stress (Estes et al., 2013) and fatigue (Seymour, Wood, Giallo, & Jellett, 2013) in parents of young children with ASDs.”
BackgroundInfluentialFactor, R. S., Ollendick, T. H., Cooper, L. D., Dunsmore, J. C., Rea, H. M., & Scarpa, A. (2019) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-019-00297-x · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Since it is known that caregivers of children with ASD experience more stress than caregivers of other children (Davis and Carter 2008; Estes et al. 2013), this seems like a necessary target to further study the mechanisms of change in these interventions.”
BackgroundBibliometric profile of the global scientific research on autism spectrum disorders
Sweileh, W. M., Al‐Jabi, S. W., Sawalha, A. F., & Zyoud, S. H. (2016) · SpringerPlus · doi:10.1186/s40064-016-3165-6 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Furthermore, ASD have great emotional, social, and health impact on individuals with ASD and their families (Lavelle et al. 2014; Karst and Van Hecke 2012; Hayes and Watson 2013; Estes et al. 2013).”
BackgroundProvenzani, U., Fusar‐Poli, L., Brondino, N., Damiani, S., Vercesi, M., Meyer, N., Rocchetti, M., & Politi, P. (2019) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361319854641 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“In fact, the severity of problem behaviours and the presence of poor daily living skills have a greater impact on caregivers of individuals with ASD compared to the severity of ASD core symptoms (Estes et al., 2013).”
BackgroundTonge, B. J., Bull, K., Brereton, A., & Wilson, R. (2014) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000043 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Machado, S. B., Celestino, M. I. O., Serra, J. P. C., Caron, J., & Pondé, M. P. (2014) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3109/17518423.2014.925519 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“[12] used parent self-reports of parenting-related stress and psychological distress.”
Boshoff, K., Gibbs, D., Phillips, R. L., Wiles, L., & Porter, L. L. (2017) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12504 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“co ASD experience high levels of parenting stress (Davis & Carter, 2008; Ludlow, Skelly, & Rohleder, 2012; Rivard, Terroux, Parent‐Boursier, & Mercier, 2014) and that these stress levels are higher than parents of typically developing children or those with other disabilities (Estes et al., 2013; Hayes & Watson, 2013).”
BackgroundIida, N., Wada, Y., Yamashita, T., Aoyama, M., Hirai, K., & Narumoto, J. (2018) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s188387 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“but not daily living skills, were positively associated with parenting stress for mothers of both children with ASD and children with developmental delay (DD).(4,5) Parents of children with ASD use “active avoidance” and escape-coping strategies, such as passive appraisal, more frequently than parents of typically dev…”
BackgroundInvestigating Parenting Stress across Pediatric Health Conditions - A Systematic Review
Golfenshtein, N., Srulovici, E., & Medoff-Cooper, B. S. (2015) · Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.3109/01460862.2015.1078423 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Factors associated with stress in families of children with autism spectrum disorder
Chamberlain, A., Vaz, S. M. A., Cordier, R., Joosten, A. V., Parsons, D. N., Smith, C., & Falkmer, T. (2017) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.1080/17518423.2017.1326185 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Collins, P. Y., Pringle, B., Alexander, C., Darmstadt, G. L., Heymann, J. S., Huebner, G., Kutlesic, V., Polk, C., Sherr, L., Shih, A. J., et al. (2017) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002393 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Karazsia, B. T., Myers, R. E., Hwang, Y., & Anālayo, B. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00385 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disabilities (IDs) are at risk for prolonged stress because of a number of child characteristics, such as age of the child, severity of diagnostic condition, level of functional abilities, and especially behavioral challenges (Davis and Carter, 2…”
BackgroundBourke‐Taylor, H. M., Lee, D. A., Tirlea, L., Joyce, K. S., Morgan, P. E., & Haines, T. P. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04826-4 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Parental Perceptions and Decisions Regarding Maintaining Bilingualism in Autism
Howard, K., Gibson, J. L., & Katsos, N. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04528-x · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Singh, P., Ghosh, S., & Nandi, S. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3233-y · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Cetinbakis, G., Baştuğ, G., & Ozel-Kizil, E. T. (2018) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2018.1478630 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Most of these studies highlighted an association among maternal/parental stress, maladaptive behavior and low social support (Boyd 2002; Blacher and McIntyre 2006; Bromley et al. 2004; Estes et al. 2013; Gabriels et al. 2005; Lecavalier et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMarquis, S., Hayes, M. V., & McGrail, K. M. (2019) · Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jppi.12283 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Protective Factors Against Distress for Caregivers of a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Lindsey, R. A., & Barry, T. D. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3372-1 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Alibekova, R., Kai Chan, C., Crape, B., Kadyrzhanuly, K., Gusmanov, A., An, S., Bulekbayeva, S., Akhmetzhanova, Z., Ainabekova, A., Yerubayev, Z., et al. (2022) · Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2022.51 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“, 2013) and children’s emotional and behavioral problems (Estes et al., 2013; Falk et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2019) were found to be predictors of stress, anxiety and depression among caregivers of children with ASD.”
BackgroundYamaoka, Y., Tamiya, N., Moriyama, Y., Garrido, F. A. S., Sumazaki, R., & Noguchi, H. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145200 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Lo, H. H. M., Chan, S. K. C., Szeto, M. P., Chan, C. Y. H., & Choi, C. W. (2017) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0741-y · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Parents of Children with Dyslexia: Cognitive, Emotional and Behavioural Profile
Bonifacci, P., Montuschi, M., Lami, L., & Snowling, M. J. (2013) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1469 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Levante, A., Petrocchi, S., Bianco, F., Castelli, I., Colombi, C., Keller, R., Narzisi, A., Masi, G., & Lecciso, F. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11060808 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Gatzoyia, D., Kotsis, K., Koullourou, I., Goulia, P., Carvalho, A. F., Soulis, S., & Hyphantis, T. (2014) · Disability and health journal · doi:10.1016/j.dhjo.2013.10.008 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Vanegas, S. B., & Abdelrahim, R. (2016) · Journal of Family Social Work · doi:10.1080/10522158.2016.1218399 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…2009), survivors of childhood cancer (Patel, Wong, Cuevas, & Van Horn, 2013), fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (Paley, O’Connor, Frankel, & Marquardt, 2006), Fragile X syndrome (Wheeler et al., 2007), and ID/DD (Azad, Blacher, & Marcoulides, 2013; Estes et al., 2013; Tervo, 2012; Woodman, 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHarrop, C., McBee, M. T., & Boyd, B. A. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2707-7 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…relationships have been found between child behavior problems and stress in a number of studies across a wide range of ages (Beck et al. 2004; Estes et al. 2013b; Falk et al. 2014; Hastings 2003; Orsmond et al. 2003), and these associations often are stronger than those found for the core…”
BackgroundSengupta, K., Mahadik, S., & Kapoor, G. (2020) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101585 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Yamaoka, Y., Tamiya, N., Izumida, N., Kawamura, A., Takahashi, H., & Noguchi, H. (2016) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.08.001 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Chan, K. K. S., & Leung, D. C. K. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04557-6 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Postorino, V., Gillespie, S. E., Lecavalier, L., Smith, T. H., Johnson, C. R., Swiezy, N. B., Aman, M. G., McDougle, C. J., Bearss, K. E., Andridge, R., et al. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01423-7 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Giannotti, M., Bonatti, S. M., Tanaka, S., Kojima, H., & de Falco, S. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11111419 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“In light of these characteristics, both mothers and fathers of children with ASD could face unique challenges and parenting demands, bearing consequences also on their psychological distress [2,3].”
Bi, X.-B., He, H.-Z., Lin, H., & Fan, X.-Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835110 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Parental maltreatment of children with autism spectrum disorder: A developmental-ecological analysis
Chan, K. K. S., & Lam, C. B. (2016) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2016.09.006 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Wayment, H. A., Al‐Kire, R. L., & Brookshire, K. (2018) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361318763971 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Olson, L., Chen, B., Ibarra, C., Wang, T., Mash, L. E., Linke, A. C., Kinnear, M., & Fishman, I. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-04995-w · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Similarly, in parents of children with ASD between 4 and 12 years of age, children’s behavioral and emotional problems—but not social impairments associated with ASD—were predictive of parental mental distress (self-reported stress, anxiety, and depression; Firth & Dryer, 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe impact of autism spectrum disorder on parents in Arab countries: a systematic literature review
Alkhateeb, J. M., Hadidi, M. S., & Mounzer, W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.955442 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Lin, Y.-N., Iao, L.-S., Lee, Y.-H., & Wu, C.-C. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04720-z · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Rafferty, D., Tidman, L., & Ekas, N. V. (2020) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12728 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Relationship Satisfaction and Dyadic Coping in Couples with a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Chamberlain, A., Cordier, R., Vaz, S. M. A., Parsons, R. W., & Falkmer, T. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3275-1 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“There are myriad sources of parenting stress (Phetrasuwan and Miles 2009), but challenging child behavior is, arguably, one of the strongest predictors (Estes et al. 2013; McStay et al. 2014; Peters-Scheffer et al. 2012) with mutually escalating effects (Lecavalier et al.”
BackgroundHou, Y., Stewart, L., Iao, L., & Wu, C. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12471 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…problems in school- age children with ASD are associated with parenting stress (Falk, Norris, & Quinn, 2014; Hastings, 2003; Lecavalier, Leone, & Wiltz, 2006; Lovell & Wetherell, 2016; Peters- Scheffer et al., 2012) and depression (Falk et al., 2014; Hastings, 2003; Kim, Ekas, & Hock, 2016).”
Kamp‐Becker, I., Poustka, L., Bachmann, C., Ehrlich, S., Hoffmann, F., Kanske, P., Kirsch, P., Krach, S., Paulus, F. M., Rietschel, M., et al. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1362-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“This may lead to an increased burden upon families living with an ASD affected child [24, 25].”
BackgroundChua, J. Y. X., & Shorey, S. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-04893-1 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“The significant challenges associated with raising a child with a developmental disability cause parents of this group of children to experience higher stress levels and place them at higher risks of developing mental health problems (Carroll 2013; Estes et al. 2012).”
BackgroundSiu, Q. K. Y., Yi, H., Chan, R. C. H., Chio, F. H. N., Chan, D. F. Y., & Mak, W. W. S. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3791-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Chen, C. Y.-C., Byrne, E., & Vélez, T. (2022) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-022-02321-1 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“However, some researchers (e.g., Driscoll et al., 2018; Estes et al., 2013; Singer et al., 1999) have suggested that parenting stress and psychological distress represent two distinct constructs.”
BackgroundFong, V. C., Lee, B. S., & Iarocci, G. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211034067 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Families also report a number of challenges raising their autistic child due to the nature and complexity of their child’s social, behavioral, physical, and medical needs (Estes et al., 2013).”
BackgroundParenting Stress and Maternal Coherence: Mothers With Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Children
Jean, Y. Q., Mazlan, R., Ahmad, M., & Maamor, N. (2018) · American Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1044/2018_aja-17-0093 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
COVID-19 Related Challenges and Advice from Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Parenteau, C. I., Bent, S., Hossain, B., Chen, Y., Widjaja, F., Breard, M., & Hendren, R. L. (2020) · SciMedicine Journal · doi:10.28991/scimedj-2020-02-si-6 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Indeed, parenting stress is higher in children with ASD compared to stress in parents with typically developing children and children with developmental disabilities [14].”
BackgroundYesilkaya, M., & Magallón-Neri, E. M. (2024) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241235033 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Hou et al. (2018) and Estes et al. (2009, 2013) compared stress levels between mothers of children with ASD and children with developmental delay (DD).”
Sim, A., Cordier, R., Vaz, S., & Falkmer, T. (2019) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2018.11.011 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Zlomke, K. R., & Jeter, K. M. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-03960-y · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“General psychological distress in parents of children with ASD is associated with greater behavior problems (Estes et al. 2013; Lecavalier et al. 2006), and previous research documents a reciprocal relationship between parenting stress and behavior problems in children with ASD.”
BackgroundThe Social Effect of “Being Imitated” in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Contaldo, A., Colombi, C., Narzisi, A., & Muratori, F. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00726 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“This finding supports the engagement of the family as an important aspect of early intervention in ASD (Rogers et al., 2012; Estes et al., 2013).”
ResultBradshaw, J. L., Bearss, K. E., McCracken, C., Smith, T. H., Johnson, C. R., Lecavalier, L., Swiezy, N. B., & Scahill, L. D. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2017.1381913 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“These challenges may amplify parental stress and strain and erode selfefficacy (Estes et al., 2013; Lecavalier et al., 2006).”
BackgroundPredictors of Mental Health in Chinese Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Su, X., Cai, R. Y., & Uljarević, M. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3364-1 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“It can be quite stressful caring for an individual with autism due to the life challenges associated with the core symptoms of ASD as well as co-morbid symptoms (Bebko et al. 1987; Estes et al. 2013; Kasari and Sigman 1997; Hastings and Johnson 2001; Beck et al. 2004; Konstantareas and Papageorgiou 2006).”
BackgroundZand, D. H., Bultas, M. W., McMillin, S. E., Halloran, D. R., White, T., McNamara, D. M., & Pierce, K. J. (2017) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12334 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Renzo, M. D., Guerriero, V., Petrillo, M., & di Castelbianco, F. B. (2021) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x211030735 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Taking care of a child with ASD can increase general stress levels beyond the stress levels associated with parenting typically developed children and children with other neurodevelopmental disabilities (e.g. Estes et al., 2013; Hayes &Watson 2013; Ilias, Cornish, Kummar, Park, & Golden, 2018).”
BackgroundEkas, N. V., Ghilain, C. S., Pruitt, M. M., Çelimli, Ş., Gutierrez, A., & Alessandri, M. (2015) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.09.002 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Greco, G., & Ronzi, R. D. (2020) · Journal of Physical Education and Sport · doi:10.7752/jpes.2020.04223 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Death concerns and psychological well-being in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder
Cox, C. R., Eaton, S., Ekas, N. V., & Enkevort, E. A. V. (2015) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2015.07.029 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
- Authors
- Estes, A., Olson, E., Sullivan, K., Greenson, J., Winter, J., Dawson, G., & Munson, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Estes, Annette
- Venue
- Brain and Development
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-02
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 133-138
- ISSN
- 0387-7604 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3552060
- OpenAlex
- W2017777591
- Cited by
- 456
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 9
- FWCI
- 16.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain and Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (U54MH066399)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P50HD055782)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, parental stress, maternal distress, toddlers, developmental delay, child behavior problems, daily living skills, early diagnosis, early intervention
- MeSH terms
- Activities of Daily Living, Adult, Child Behavior, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Mothers, Parents, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Parenting, Caregivers, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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