Modulation of Attention and Stress with Arousal: The Mental and Physical Effects of Riding a Motorcycle

“All processing of the EEG data was performed in MATLAB (v. R2018b, Mathworks Inc.) using EEGLAB software (v.14.1.2) (Delorme and Makeig, 2004).”

“We corrected all t-tests for multiple comparisons, shown as pcorrected, using the Holm-Bonferroni procedure (Holm, 1979).”

“Several months after collecting the EEG, hormone, and heart rate data (mean 22 months), we sent participants an online, modified version of the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) to quantify the subjective effect of motorcycle riding on metrics of anxiety and stress (Hamilton, 1959).”

“, 2019), topography and morphology for oddball-elicited parietal P3 (Linden, 2005; Polich, 2007), and frontal mismatch-negativity (Näätänen et al.”

“…116◦45′33.2′′W. D.A. Vaughn et al. Brain Research 1752 (2021) 147203 quantified N1 and MMN at electrode Fz, consistent with prior reports (Näätänen et al., 2007; Näätänen and Picton, 1987), though we note that the topography of these effects has a broad fronto-central distribution (Fig.”

“…with sensory content, reliably documented in perception (Busch et al., 2009; Hanslmayr et al., 2007; Samaha and Postle, 2015), selective attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010), working memory (Jensen, 2002; Sauseng et al., 2005) and memory encoding (Klimesch, 1997, 2012).”

“, 2007; Samaha and Postle, 2015), selective attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010), working memory (Jensen, 2002; Sauseng et al.”

“These data provide ecologically-valid support for the hypothesized interaction between arousal and cognitive processing (Sara, 2009; Sara and Bouret, 2012), here applied specifically to selective attention and sensory processing.”

“posterior alpha power have been associated reliably with visual attention, thought to reflect mechanisms that gate sensory inputs (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010; Klimesch, 2012; Pfurtscheller et al., 1996; da Silva and da Silva, 1991).”

“, 2007; Samaha and Postle, 2015), selective attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010), working memory (Jensen, 2002; Sauseng et al., 2005) and memory encoding (Klimesch, 1997, 2012).”

“…et al., 2001; McEvoy et al., 2000; Näpflin et al., 2007; Neuper et al., 2005; Tenke et al., 2017), and its generalizability across species (cat, dog, primate, rat, guinea pig (Hughes and Crunelli, 2005; Steriade et al., 1990)), supports its candidacy as a marker of visual attention during riding.”

“Notably, modulations of posterior alpha power have been associated reliably with visual attention, thought to reflect mechanisms that gate sensory inputs (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010; Klimesch, 2012; Pfurtscheller et al., 1996; da Silva and da Silva, 1991).”

“…with sensory content, reliably documented in perception (Busch et al., 2009; Hanslmayr et al., 2007; Samaha and Postle, 2015), selective attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010), working memory (Jensen, 2002; Sauseng et al., 2005) and memory encoding (Klimesch, 1997, 2012).”

“…across a variety of metrics, including test–retest reliability (Malcolm et al., 2019), topography and morphology for oddball-elicited parietal P3 (Linden, 2005; Polich, 2007), and frontal mismatch-negativity (Näätänen et al., 2007); across indoor versus outdoor activities (Debener et al.,…”

“…may choose to assess the temporal nature of this hormonal shift in search of prophylactic potential, given that elevated glucocorticoid levels have been shown to contribute to neuronal death, among other undesirable outcomes (Dinkel et al., 2003; Kerr et al., 1991; Krystal, 1993; Uno et al., 1989).”

“…with sensory content, reliably documented in perception (Busch et al., 2009; Hanslmayr et al., 2007; Samaha and Postle, 2015), selective attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010), working memory (Jensen, 2002; Sauseng et al., 2005) and memory encoding (Klimesch, 1997, 2012).”

“hypothalamic–pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis leading to increasing levels of serum glucocorticoids (and other hormones) (Khansari et al., 1990).”

“This was motivated by known, a priori posterior distribution of modulation effects in the alpha frequency range during visual attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Romei et al., 2010; Silva et al., 1977).”

“The magnitude of the increase during riding is commensurate with the magnitude of physiological changes during light exercise (Pearson et al., 1995; Zouhal et al., 2008), even though riding is a seated activity and”

“…of sensory signals and decreases to engagement with sensory content, reliably documented in perception (Busch et al., 2009; Hanslmayr et al., 2007; Samaha and Postle, 2015), selective attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010), working memory (Jensen, 2002; Sauseng et al., 2005)…”

“…reflected by the changes in SAM (heart rate and epinephrine) and HPA axis (cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEA-S), and testosterone level (Buford and Willoughby, 2008; Morgan et al., 2004; Pakanen et al., 2016; Ritsner et al., 2004; Warnock et al., 2010) across experimental conditions.”

“Notably, modulations of posterior alpha power have been associated reliably with visual attention, thought to reflect mechanisms that gate sensory inputs (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010; Klimesch, 2012; Pfurtscheller et al., 1996; da Silva and da Silva, 1991).”

“posed, inputs (Eldar et al., 2013; Warren et al., 2016), thus facilitating selective attention (Aston-Jones and Cohen, 2005; Nieuwenhuis et al.”

“We used the auditory oddball paradigm (Segalowitz and Barnes, 1993) to assess sensory processing during stationary, riding, and driving conditions.”

“Based on a formal assessment (Chang et al., 2018), we adopted a threshold of 100 standard deviations, which provides a very conservative approach that identifies only the most extreme artifacts.”

“…oddball task, not only because it is well-validated in the context of mobile EEG (Debener et al., 2012; Scanlon et al., 2017, 2019a, 2019b) but also because auditory tones are a reliable tool for the passive probing of sensory and attention processing during riding (Näätänen et al., 2007, 2011).”

“…the alpha signal (Adrian and Matthews, 1934; Pfurtscheller et al., 1996), its within-subject reliability (Krause et al., 2001; McEvoy et al., 2000; Näpflin et al., 2007; Neuper et al., 2005; Tenke et al., 2017), and its generalizability across species (cat, dog, primate, rat, guinea pig (Hughes…”

“We believe that D.A. Vaughn et al. Brain Research 1752 (2021) 147203 this is unlikely to explain the entire effect, as we also observed a decrease in posterior relative alpha power during this condition, consistent with enhanced visual attention (Pfurtscheller, 2003; Romei et al., 2008).”

“…of broad sensory enhancement aligns with research showing an increased MMN response in meditators (Biedermann et al., 2016; Luo et al., 1999; Singh and Telles, 2015; Srinivasan and Baijal, 2007), as well as attenuated MMN amplitude and/or latency in cases of cognitive dysfunction (Ford and…”

“…activities (Debener et al., 2012; Scanlon et al., 2017, 2019a, 2019b); and across stationary versus mobile conditions, specifically walking (Debener et al., 2012; De Vos et al., 2014; De Vos and Debener, 2014; Gramann et al., 2010) and biking (Scanlon et al., 2017, 2019a, 2019b; Zink et al., 2016).”

“…and Matthews, 1934; Pfurtscheller et al., 1996), its within-subject reliability (Krause et al., 2001; McEvoy et al., 2000; Näpflin et al., 2007; Neuper et al., 2005; Tenke et al., 2017), and its generalizability across species (cat, dog, primate, rat, guinea pig (Hughes and Crunelli, 2005;…”

“We used the auditory oddball paradigm (Segalowitz and Barnes, 1993) to assess sensory processing during stationary, riding, and driving conditions.”

“…of the stressful event, duration (minutes, hours, or days), coping behavior, and mind-body’s resilience, the responses of the SAM system and HPA axis differ, which will reflect on the changes in the secretion of catecholamines and glucocorticoids (Bosch et al., 2001; Matalka, 2003; Seery, 2011).”

“…such as skydiving, scuba, tennis, etc.) and activities engaged in natural exposure to environment offer a means of stress reduction by drawing the riders’ limited attentional resources away from other stressful factors in their lives (e. g., psychosocial concerns) (Ewert and Chang, 2018).”

“We believe that D.A. Vaughn et al. Brain Research 1752 (2021) 147203 this is unlikely to explain the entire effect, as we also observed a decrease in posterior relative alpha power during this condition, consistent with enhanced visual attention (Pfurtscheller, 2003; Romei et al., 2008).”

“Power increases have been related to blocking of sensory signals and decreases to engagement with sensory content, reliably documented in perception (Busch et al., 2009; Hanslmayr et al., 2007; Samaha and Postle, 2015), selective attention (Foxe and Snyder, 2011; Jensen and Mazaheri, 2010), working…”

“…1999; Singh and Telles, 2015; Srinivasan and Baijal, 2007), as well as attenuated MMN amplitude and/or latency in cases of cognitive dysfunction (Ford and Mathalon, 2012; Huttunen-Scott et al., 2008; D.A. Vaughn et al. Brain Research 1752 (2021) 147203 Näätänen et al., 2014; Shelley et al.,…”

“…reflected by the changes in SAM (heart rate and epinephrine) and HPA axis (cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEA-S), and testosterone level (Buford and Willoughby, 2008; Morgan et al., 2004; Pakanen et al., 2016; Ritsner et al., 2004; Warnock et al., 2010) across experimental conditions.”

“…reflected by the changes in SAM (heart rate and epinephrine) and HPA axis (cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEA-S), and testosterone level (Buford and Willoughby, 2008; Morgan et al., 2004; Pakanen et al., 2016; Ritsner et al., 2004; Warnock et al., 2010) across experimental conditions.”

“…arousal is thought to modulate the gain of neural responses to target, or selectively predisposed, inputs (Eldar et al., 2013; Warren et al., 2016), thus facilitating selective attention (Aston-Jones and Cohen, 2005; Nieuwenhuis et al., 2011; Sara and Bouret, 2012; van den Brink et al., 2016).”

“Similarly, and in various stress reduction activities, cortisol levels were found to be decreased (Miluk-Kolasa et al., 1994; Yount et al., 2013).”

“posed, inputs (Eldar et al., 2013; Warren et al., 2016), thus facilitating selective attention (Aston-Jones and Cohen, 2005; Nieuwenhuis et al.”

“…activities (Debener et al., 2012; Scanlon et al., 2017, 2019a, 2019b); and across stationary versus mobile conditions, specifically walking (Debener et al., 2012; De Vos et al., 2014; De Vos and Debener, 2014; Gramann et al., 2010) and biking (Scanlon et al., 2017, 2019a, 2019b; Zink et al., 2016).”

“Namely, the magnitude of this change in brain activity while riding suggest an increase in alertness, analogous to the boost provided by a cup of coffee (Angelakis et al., 2004; Barry et al., 2005; Dimpfel et al., 1993; Reeves et al., 1995).”

“Finally, the decreased cortisol and cortisol to DHEA-S ratio during riding provide data consistent with the self-reported stress reduction that accompanies the riding experience (Heaney et al., 2013).”

“that were inaccessible in a lab setting, including those between motion and visual processing (Ladouce et al., 2019; Liang et al., 2018; Reiser et al., 2019), sensory tuning with natural noise (Scanlon et al.”

“…of the stressful event, duration (minutes, hours, or days), coping behavior, and mind-body’s resilience, the responses of the SAM system and HPA axis differ, which will reflect on the changes in the secretion of catecholamines and glucocorticoids (Bosch et al., 2001; Matalka, 2003; Seery, 2011).”

“…of metrics, including test–retest reliability (Malcolm et al., 2019), topography and morphology for oddball-elicited parietal P3 (Linden, 2005; Polich, 2007), and frontal mismatch-negativity (Näätänen et al., 2007); across indoor versus outdoor activities (Debener et al., 2012; Scanlon et…”

“The magnitude of the increase during riding is commensurate with the magnitude of physiological changes during light exercise (Pearson et al., 1995; Zouhal et al., 2008), even though riding is a seated activity and epinephrine production is known to decrease in the seated position (Christensen and…”

“…of the stressful event, duration (minutes, hours, or days), coping behavior, and mind-body’s resilience, the responses of the SAM system and HPA axis differ, which will reflect on the changes in the secretion of catecholamines and glucocorticoids (Bosch et al., 2001; Matalka, 2003; Seery, 2011).”

“We believe that D.A. Vaughn et al. Brain Research 1752 (2021) 147203 this is unlikely to explain the entire effect, as we also observed a decrease in posterior relative alpha power during this condition, consistent with enhanced visual attention (Pfurtscheller, 2003; Romei et al., 2008).”

“Similarly, and in various stress reduction activities, cortisol levels were found to be decreased (Miluk-Kolasa et al., 1994; Yount et al., 2013).”

“This interaction is particularly interesting in the context of competitive sports (Krahenbuhl, 1975) and sensation-seeking activities (Ball and Zuckerman, 1992), such as skydiving or motorcycle riding, in which arousalbased facilitation of performance is associated with positive sensations and…”

“…motion and visual processing (Ladouce et al., 2019; Liang et al., 2018; Reiser et al., 2019), sensory tuning with natural noise (Scanlon et al., 2019a, 2019b), as well as episodic encoding and spatial context (Griffiths et al., 2016; Park and Donaldson, 2019; Piñeyro Salvidegoitia et al., 2019).”

“N1 wave in the oddball test might represent selective attention to sensory changes [63, 64] and has been found to be lower in individuals with PD [24, 65–67].”

“…processes in naturalistic settings, including real-world spatial navigation and movement (Ehinger et al., 2014; Liang, Starrett, & Ekstrom, 2018), visual attention during motorcycling (Vaughn et al., 2021), and student engagement during college lessons (Grammer, Xu, & Lenartowicz, 2021).”

“These improvements are thought to arise in part because arousal can increase selective attention to a stimulus, its location, or the task more generally (Vaughn et al., 2021).”

“…of sensory processing, increase in focus, and visual attention can increase epinephrine levels, increase heart rate, and decrease cortisol levels demonstrating that riding a motor-cycle can replicate the results associated with exercise and the reduction of stress levels (Vaughn et al., 2021).”

“This sensory attunement can give rise to epinephrine levels, heart rate, and lower cortisol levels; replicating positive results associated with exercise and the reduction of stress levels, more closely linked to the understanding of ‘ runner ’ s high ’ (Jackman et al., 2022; Vaughn et al., 2021).”