Attachment and trust in artificial intelligence
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Trust acts as a validation mechanism.
“Trust acts as a validation mechanism [58].”
From Modeling teachers’ acceptance of generative artificial intelligence use in higher education: the role of AI literacy, intelligent TPACK, and perceived trust (2024) · cites this paper as [58]
Many studies have demonstrated that when educators trust AI-based tools, they are more likely to recognize and utilize these tools' capabilities in enhancing teaching and learning outcomes.
“Many studies have demonstrated that when educators trust AI-based tools, they are more likely to recognize and utilize these tools' capabilities in enhancing teaching and learning outcomes [5,58].”
From Modeling teachers’ acceptance of generative artificial intelligence use in higher education: the role of AI literacy, intelligent TPACK, and perceived trust (2024) · cites this paper as [58]
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Wong, L.-W., Tan, G., Ooi, K., & Dwivedi, Y. K. (2023) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-07-2021-0446 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Gölgeci̇, İ., Ritala, P., Arslan, A., McKenna, B., & Ali, I. (2024) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2024.101075 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Choung, H., David, P., & Ross, A. A. (2022) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-022-01473-4 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“Past studies have extended the concept of interpersonal trust to human-technology relationships (Calhoun et al. 2019), especially to technology with human-like characteristics (Gillath et al. 2021).”
BackgroundDigital Therapeutic Alliance With Fully Automated Mental Health Smartphone Apps: A Narrative Review
Tong, F., Lederman, R., D'Alfonso, S., Berry, K., & Bucci, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.819623 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“In recent years, researchers also found that attachment style can be applied in the context of artificial intelligence (AI) and information technology (IT) (100, 101).”
BackgroundExploring the influence of ChatGPT on tourism behavior using the technology acceptance model
Solomovich, L., & Abraham, V. (2024) · Tourism Review · doi:10.1108/tr-10-2023-0697 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
A Conceptual Model of Trust, Perceived Risk, and Reliance on AI Decision Aids
Solberg, E., Kaarstad, M., Eitrheim, M. H. R., Bisio, R., Reegård, K., & Bloch, M. (2022) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/10596011221081238 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Alternatively, it has been conducted using vignette studies where short descriptions about the AI decision aid are presented to respondents within an online survey to elicit their judgments and perceptions (e.g., Aoki, 2021; Gillath et al., 2021; H¨oddinghaus et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPredicting continuance intention to fintech chatbot
Huang, S. Y. B., & Lee, C.-J. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.107027 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Sánchez‐Prieto, J. C., Cruz-Benito, J., Therón, R., & Peñalvo, F. J. G. (2020) · International Journal of Interactive Multimedia and Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.9781/ijimai.2020.11.009 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“One of the main problems when dealing with the implementation of the AI-based systems is the lack of user confidence in both the handling of the user’s personal information and the resolution of complex problems [47].”
BackgroundTrust in Human-AI Interaction: Scoping Out Models, Measures, and Methods
Ueno, T., Sawa, Y., Kim, Y., Urakami, J., Oura, H., & Seaborn, K. (2022) · Extended Abstracts of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3491101.3519772 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“The AI capabilities are to make predictions, recommendations, or decisions influencing real or virtual environments, through learning, reasoning and self-correcting [15, 57].”
BackgroundAttitudes and perspectives towards the preferences for artificial intelligence in psychotherapy
Aktan, M. E., Turhan, Z., & Dolu, İ. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107273 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Unveiling trust in AI: the interplay of antecedents, consequences, and cultural dynamics
Dang, Q., & Li, G. (2025) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02477-6 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“…power (Agnihotri and Bhattacharya 2024; Gillath et al. 2021; Li and Bitterly 2024), competence-related variables such as personal AI familiarity, technical self-efficacy, and perceived mastery demonstrate robust positive effects (Chowdhury et al. 2022; Gillath et al. 2021; Montag et al. 2023).”
One size does not fit all: Young retail investors’ initial trust in financial robo-advisors
Nourallah, M. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113470 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Gu, C., Zhang, Y., & Zeng, L. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03879-5 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“This often results in failures in human-AI interactions, which not only impair the user ’ s experience but also undermine their trust in both AI chatbots and the associated brands (Gillath et al. 2020).”
Effective human–AI work design for collaborative decision-making
Jain, R., Garg, N., & Khera, S. N. (2023) · Kybernetes · doi:10.1108/k-04-2022-0548 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Investigating the impact of artificial intelligence on consumer’s purchase intention in e-retailing
Bhagat, R., Chauhan, V. S., & Bhagat, P. (2022) · foresight · doi:10.1108/fs-10-2021-0218 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Fietta, V., Zecchinato, F., Stasi, B. D., Polato, M., & Monaro, M. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · doi:10.1109/thms.2021.3125280 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Lai, X., & Rau, P. P. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106894 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Singh, A., Dwivedi, A., Agrawal, D., & Singh, D. (2023) · Operations Management Research · doi:10.1007/s12063-022-00344-x · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“This has turned out to be the major impediment in developing and retaining trust in AI technology (Gillath et al. 2021).”
Çiçek, M., Gürsoy, D., & Lu, L. (2024) · Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management · doi:10.1080/19368623.2024.2368040 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Cognitive trust refers to one’s confidence in the trustee and their ability based on existing knowledge about whether others will fulfill their responsibilities (Gillath et al., 2021; Johnson & Grayson, 2005).”
Shamim, S., Yang, Y., Zia, N. U., Khan, Z., & Shariq, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114168 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Trust in technology refers to people ’ s readiness to embrace the potential risks associated with AI to achieve superior outcomes (Gillath et al. 2021).”
BackgroundArtificial intelligence and moral dilemmas: Perception of ethical decision-making in AI
Zhang, Z., Chen, Z., & Xu, L. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104327 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Tal, A. S., Kuflik, T., & Kliger, D. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2095705 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…(2020) who argued that a higher education level and higher income level are positively associated with fairness perceptions and with Araujo et al. (2020), Gillath et al. (2021), and Troshani et al. (2021) who maintained that older people are less likely to trust AI systems and perceive it as fair.”
BackgroundWhat makes you attached to social companion AI? A two-stage exploratory mixed-method study
Hu, D., Lan, Y., Yan, H., & Chen, C. W. (2025) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2025.102890 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Zhang, W., Zhang, W., Daim, T., & Yalçın, H. (2025) · Journal of Knowledge Management · doi:10.1108/jkm-02-2024-0203 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
What kind of trust does AI deserve, if any?
Alvarado, R. (2023) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-022-00224-x · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Yang, C., & Hu, J. (2021) · Journal of Brand Management · doi:10.1057/s41262-021-00261-7 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“First, it broadens our understanding of human-AI interactions (Desideri et al. 2019; Fernandes and Oliveira 2021; Gillath et al. 2021; Kashive et al. 2020; Luo et al. 2019) by examining whether and when brand meaning congruence drives preference for or resistance to AI-enabled services and…”
BackgroundShao, Z., Zhang, J., Zhang, L., & Benitez, J. (2024) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1080/0960085x.2024.2363322 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Particularly, the growing research has begun to focus on trust in AI-based voice assistants (Bawack et al., 2021; Fernandes & Oliveira, 2021), and emphasises that trust is the premise of users’ leverage of benefits offered by artificial intelligence (Gillath et al., 2021).”
Using attachment theory to conceptualize and measure the experiences in human-AI relationships
Yang, F., & Oshio, A. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07917-6 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Many studies have provided insights into human-AI trust (e.g., Gillath et al., 2021) and the emotional and affective functions of AI (e.g., Astell & Clayton, 2024).”
Chin, C.-H., Wong, W. P. M., Cham, T., Thong, J. Z., & Ling, J. P.-W. (2023) · Young Consumers Insight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers · doi:10.1108/yc-05-2023-1752 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence enabled participatory planning: a review
Du, J., Ye, X., Jankowski, P. L., Sanchez, T. W., & Mai, G. (2023) · International Journal of Urban Sciences · doi:10.1080/12265934.2023.2262427 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Analyzing how humans build trust toward each other would also help to fi nd ways for people to trust AI (Gillath et al., 2021).”
BackgroundExploring Designer Trust in Artificial Intelligence-Generated Content: TAM/TPB Model Study
Wang, S.-F., & Chen, C.-C. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14166902 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“(Interviewee 15, female).”
Regulating for trust: Can law establish trust in artificial intelligence?
Tamò‐Larrieux, A., Guitton, C., Mayer, S., & Lutz, C. (2023) · Regulation & Governance · doi:10.1111/rego.12568 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Speci fi cally, in relation to AI (rather than automation more generally), the directionality is the opposite, with younger people trusting such technology more strongly (Gillath et al., 2021).”
BackgroundZhou, L., Rudin, C. D., Gombolay, M., Spohrer, J., Professionals, I. S. O. S. I., Zhou, M. X., Juji, & Paul, S. (2023) · AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.17705/1thci.00185 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Choung, H., David, P., & Ling, T.-W. (2024) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102721 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Mutuality in AI-enabled new public service solutions
Koskimies, E., & Kinder, T. (2022) · Public Management Review · doi:10.1080/14719037.2022.2078501 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Processes include learning, reasoning and self-correction (Gillath et al. 2021).”
Qin, H., Zhu, Y., Jiang, Y., Luo, S., & Huang, C. (2024) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102726 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence and the Psychology of Human Connection
Boyd, R. L., & Markowitz, D. M. (2026) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916251404394 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Indeed, we are beginning to see studies that take the relationship between AI and attachment theory seriously (Gillath et al., 2021; Xie & Pentina, 2022), with evidence suggesting that higher attachment anxiety is typically associated with lower trust in AI.”
Li, J., Zhou, Y., Yao, J., & Liu, X. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-92904-7 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Work Characteristics Needed by Middle Managers When Leading AI-Integrated Service Teams
Koponen, J. P., Julkunen, S., Laajalahti, A., Turunen, M., & Spitzberg, B. H. (2023) · Journal of Service Research · doi:10.1177/10946705231220462 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Huynh, M.-T., & Aichner, T. (2025) · Ai & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02378-8 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Factors Affecting Pedestrians’ Trust in Automated Vehicles: Literature Review and Theoretical Model
Zhou, S., Sun, X. S., Liu, B., & Burnett, G. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · doi:10.1109/thms.2021.3112956 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Role of interaction quality and trust in use of AI-based voice-assistant systems
Lee, O.-K. D., Ayyagari, R., Nasirian, F., & Ahmadian, M. (2021) · Journal of Systems and Information Technology · doi:10.1108/jsit-07-2020-0132 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Cao, S., Liu, A., & Huang, C. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3637318 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“This finding is inconsistent with prior work that found being younger is positively correlated with trust in AI agents [31], which is highly correlated with reliance and adoption of AI advice [8, 95].”
MethodResultWang, G., Obrenovic, B., Gu, X., & Godinić, D. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07357-2 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“To reduce fears, ensuring the trustworthiness of AI is crucial because it is grounded in understanding and providing insight into psychological incentives for inclusion (Gillath et al., 2021; Thiebes et al., 2020 ).”
Rawool, V., Foroudi, P., & Palazzo, M. (2024) · Electronic Commerce Research · doi:10.1007/s10660-024-09850-5 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“According to Gillath et al. [18], individuals do not perceive AI usage using human to non-human parameters, and there are many underlying factors at play, in particular, an individual’s attachment style (high attachment anxiety, high attachment avoidance, securely attached).”
Examining Attachment to Robots: Benefits, Challenges, and Alternatives
Law, T., Chita-Tegmark, M., Rabb, N., & Scheutz, M. J. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3526105 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Hadlington, L., Binder, J. F., Gardner, S. E., Karanika‐Murray, M., & Knight, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1164810 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“A summative working definition for more general purposes is provided, for example, by Gillath et al. (2021): “Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWen, F., Li, Y., Zhou, Y., An, X., & Zou, Q. (2024) · Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange · doi:10.18785/jetde.1701.07 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“For example, increasing students’ knowledge of and trust in AI can help them reduce pressure and improve the efficiency of using AI tools (Gillath et al., 2021).”
BackgroundHow Do Employees Form Initial Trust in Artificial Intelligence: Hard to Explain But Leaders Help
Xu, Y., Huang, Y., Wang, J., & Zhou, D. (2022) · Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.1111/1744-7941.12402 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Huang, K., & Ball, C. (2024) · Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/pra2.1146 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Regarding outcome variables, based on previous studies, we assessed participant trust in AI in six scenarios across three key sectors (Gillath et al., 2021): Transportation, Healthcare, and Social Relationships.”
Trust and AI weight: human-AI collaboration in organizational management decision-making
Wen, Y., Wang, J., & Chen, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Organizational Psychology · doi:10.3389/forgp.2025.1419403 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The effectiveness of explainable AI on human factors in trust models
Cheung, J. C. T., & Ho, S. S. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-04189-9 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Not only is trust predictive of overcoming resistance to AI 38 , but it also enhances the quality of human-AI interaction 39 .”
Huo, W., Zhang, Z., Qu, J., Yan, J., Yan, S., Yan, J., & Shi, B. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2176985 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Hence, the success of medical AI, at least in part, is underpinned by patients ’ trust and acceptance (Gillath et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2020).”
BackgroundRiedel, A. S., Mulcahy, R. F., & Northey, G. (2022) · International Journal of Bank Marketing · doi:10.1108/ijbm-09-2021-0438 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Machine Replacement: A Mind-Role Fit Perspective
Yam, K. C., Eng, A., & Gray, K. J. (2024) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-030223-044504 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Mentalizing Without a Mind: Psychotherapeutic Potential of Generative AI
Yirmiya, K., & Fonagy, P. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/79156 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Interestingly, this latter study demonstrated that increasing attachment security through attachment-related primes enhanced AI trust [69], aligning with broader evidence linking attachment anxiety to epistemic mistrust [70,71].”
Miedema, E., Waschull, S., & Emmanouilidis, C. (2025) · Computers in Industry · doi:10.1016/j.compind.2025.104409 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Vianello, A., Laine, S., & Tuomi, E. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2095478 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…relationships (Barredo Arrieta et al., 2020; Chou et al., 2022) — a construct referred to in the literature as causability (Holzinger et al., 2019) — and more generally, what are the factors involved in the establishment of trust between humans and AI (Gillath et al., 2021; Jacovi et al., 2021).”
BackgroundHaesevoets, T., Verschuere, B., & Roets, A. (2025) · Government Information Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.giq.2025.102029 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Trusting emotional support from generative artificial intelligence: a conceptual review
Volpato, R., DeBruine, L. M., & Stumpf, S. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2025.100195 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Gillath et al. (Gillath et al., 2021) conducted three studies on the relationship between attachment style and trust in AI across six potential scenarios, including relationship support, and found that attachment anxiety predicts weaker feelings of trust.”
Kasturiratna, K. T. A. S., & Hartanto, A. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100912 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Kondapaka, P., Khanra, S., Malik, A., Kagzi, M., & Hemachandran, K. (2023) · Journal of Service Theory and Practice · doi:10.1108/jstp-06-2022-0134 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Jang, C. (2023) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2246590 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Speci fi cally, trust in AI is improved through the provision of personal information security protocols and explanations of why speci fi c information is provided (Bedué and Fritzsche 2022; Dikmen and Burns 2022; Gillath et al. 2021; Shin 2021).”
Enhancing user experience and trust in advanced LLM-based conversational agents
Xu, Y., Gao, W., Wang, Y., Shan, X., & Lin, Y. (2024) · Computing and artificial intelligence. · doi:10.59400/cai.v2i2.1467 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Reliability involves consistent performance, accuracy, and availability [32,33].”
BackgroundTrust and acceptance of AI caregiving robots: The role of ethics and self-efficacy
Lin, C. S., Kuo, Y., & Wang, T. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2024.100115 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
He, X., Xi, Z., & Ding, H. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/50342 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
A longitudinal model of continued acceptance of conversational artificial intelligence
Ng, Y.-L. (2024) · Information Technology and People · doi:10.1108/itp-06-2023-0577 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Unveiling the Impact of AI Technological Anxiety on the Marketers' Intention to Adopt Generative AI
Meng, T., Li, X., Alam, F., Yan, Y., & Chau, T. (2025) · Journal of Global Information Management · doi:10.4018/jgim.372177 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“In this context, it has also expanded the scope of research on AI trust mechanisms (Fahnenstich et al., 2024; Gillath et al., 2021; Vanneste & Puranam, 2024).”
- Authors
- Gillath, O., Ai, T., Branicky, M. S., Keshmiri, S., Davison, R. B., & Spaulding, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Kansas (US)
- Colorado State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gillath, Omri
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-02
- Volume
- 115
- Pages
- 106607
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3093987005
- Cited by
- 448
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 113 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 1 · 2017: 2
- FWCI
- 32.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Keywords
- trust in AI, attachment styles, attachment security, attachment anxiety, affective trust, priming, positive affect
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